管理經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)MBA（英文版）

1、 Managerial Economics Liu Houjun April, 20041Introduction Core Problems to Deal With Object Basic Research Approach Tools12一.Core Problems for ME to Dear WithCore Problems of Economics ME is the study of how producers and consumers use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute

2、them among different groups. Core of Economics Limited goods Unlimited wants3Goods are scarce because there are not enough resources to produce all the goods that people want to consume.The Law of Scarcity How to choose?What How For whom 4 二.ME and Microeconomics Managerial Economics： Economics Deci

3、sion Making Statistics 管理經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)為工商管理的其他課程提供了基本的思維方法和分析工具。5Microeconomics Most content of ME come from MicroeconomicsMicroeconomics analyzes the behavior of individual components like industries, firms, and households. Individual Components Individual consumers Firms Owner of factors 6三. Basic Research

4、Approach of ME Four Types： Individual vs total approach Static vs dynamic approach Qualitative vs quantitative approach Positive vs normative approach7個量與總量分析法Microeconomics Individual approach. Analysis dealing with the behavior of individual elements in an economy, such as the determin- ation of t

5、he price of a single product or the behavior of a single consumer or business firm 8個量與總量分析法 Macroeconomics Total approach. Studies economic aggregates ( total national product, total employment, inflation, money supply, etc. ) Connection and differences between microecon- omics and macroeconomics T

6、here are no priority and relative importance between microeconomics and macroeconomicsThe aggregate of microeconomics is not equal to the macroeconomics The whole is not always the sum of the parts The fallacy of composition9靜態(tài)與動態(tài)分析法Static approach “Other things are held equal” ceteris paribus Dynam

7、ic approach Affected by other factors Such as income, the prices of other commodities, taste, prediction, the change of factors etc.10定性與定量分析法Qualitative approach The nature of the matter. Quantitative approach Statistical data. 11 Positive Economics vs Normative Economics Positive Economics What is

8、 The analysis of facts and data, “the way things are” Normative Economics What ought to be Value judgments, or goals, of public policy.實證與規(guī)范分析法12四.Tools of Analysis Literary Economics Mathematical Economics Graphs Pictures at Exhibition 13 Demand Individual Demand and Market Demand Arc Elasticity an

9、d Point Elasticity Price Elasticity of Demand Income Elasticity of Demand Cross Elasticity of Demand214一. Individual Demand and Market Demand Demand ScheduleDemand （ P7 9 ） Shows the amount of a commodity that the individual is willing and able to purchase in a given time period at various alternati

10、ve commodity price. PX（Price of goods X in） 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 QX（Quantity demanded ) 9 8 7 6 5 4 315The demand schedule 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 QX (pounds per month)7654321PX($)需求曲線注意： 把需求表作成需求曲線時，人們假定商品的價格和數(shù)量都是無限可分的。d16 The market demand curve is the sum of all individual demand curves of the market.D市場PX(

11、$)P2P1d1d20Q3Q1Q4Q2(Q3+ Q4)(Q1+ Q2) Q (pounds per month)(d1+d2)17需求曲線的基本特征 Downward sloping demand curve Two reasons for negative slope： Lower price will cause more buyers.價格降低等于收入增加 Income effect ( 收入效應(yīng) ): Substitution effect ( 替代效應(yīng) ):商品的替代作用 Lower price will cause the same consumer to buy more. 18

12、 需求曲線負(fù)斜率的理論基礎(chǔ)： The value of marginal utility 邊際效用價值論19需求的變化與需求量的變化 A change in the quantity demanded ( 需求量的變化 ) Negative movements along the same demand curve. A change in demand ( 需求的變化 ) Caused by other reasons except prices.Demand curve shift. 20 “ 住房價格的上漲引起了對住房需求量的下降?！?“ 住房價格的上漲是由于對住房的需求增加引起的?！?

13、這兩句話是否矛盾？21 Other reasons of the change in demand：Income Tastes Prediction for prices or income Prices of other goods substitute goods complement goods 22需求曲線的特殊形狀 Exception: Some conspicuous goods Some valuable or rare goodsP($)Q0d23需求曲線的特殊形狀 Exception: Abnormal change P($)Q0d24需求曲線的特殊形狀 Exception:

14、 OthersP($)0ddQ25二. Price Elasticity of Demand 彈性理論最早是由數(shù)理經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)派的奠基者法國數(shù)學(xué)家、經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家古爾諾 （A. Cournot，18011877）提出來的，后來由馬歇爾完善了彈性公式，并將其發(fā)展成為完整的理論。 Elasticity( 彈性 ) The ratio of the percentage change of the dependent variable to the independent variable Coefficient of elasticity26Elasticity of demand Price elastic

15、ity of demand Income elasticity of demand Cross elasticity of demand27 Price elasticity of demand ( P8 5 ) A concept that measures how much the quantity demanded of a good change when its price changes Negative value 28需求價格彈性的計算方法 Arc elasticity 為避免由于起始點基數(shù)值的不同而造成計算結(jié)果上的差異，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)上常采取按兩點的平均數(shù)值計算的辦法 ，按這種方法所

16、求出的彈性稱為“弧彈性” 。Formulation： 29需求價格彈性的計算方法Point elasticity 指在某一價格水平點上，當(dāng)價格波動很微小的一點，所引起的需求量變化的敏感程度。 30PX($)AFEP1P2Q1Q2Q0DBC31 Expression in differential formulation： = lim 用求導(dǎo)數(shù)的方法計算點彈性，其優(yōu)點在于只要知道一條需求曲線的函數(shù)形態(tài)，就可以求得彈性系數(shù) e = lim點彈性的計算方法=32點彈性的計算方法舉例33需求價格彈性的幾種特殊形態(tài)de = 0P ($)0Q Zero elasticity or Perfect inel

17、asticity34需求價格彈性的幾種特殊形態(tài)de = 0Q Infinite elasticityP ($)35需求價格彈性的幾種特殊形態(tài)de = 1 0QThe elasticity is always 1 P ($)36需求價格彈性的幾種特殊形態(tài)de = 1 0Q 雙曲線需求價格彈性等于-的證明如下： P ($)37需求價格彈性和總收益的關(guān)系Three Statee，elastic e，inelastic e = ，unit elasticity 38P ($)e e 1 e = 1 e 60% 貧困 50%60% 溫飽 40%50% 小康 0 時為范圍經(jīng)濟(jì)；1e=1e 1時，MR 0；

18、 當(dāng)e = 1時，MR =0； 當(dāng)e 1時，MR 0； 187二. Short-Run Equilibrium of the Firm Total approach ( P437 )As the same as in the perfect competition: TR - TC The monopolist, if unregulated and free to maximize profits , will , of course , choose the price and output at which the difference between total revenue and

19、 total cost is largest. 188ACCBSTCTRACBQ1利 潤 區(qū)總 利 潤 線$QQ00189 Marginal approach ( P439 ) Also as the same as in the perfect competition market: MR = MC Under monopoly, the firm will maximize profit if it sets its output rate at the point at which marginal cost equals marginal revenue. This is genera

20、lly a necessary condition for profit maximization which was proved in the perfect competition model.190SACSMCDMRCA0QP($)191完全壟斷廠商的短期利潤 In this case, the monopolist earns a profit, but this need not always be the case. It does not follow that a firm that holds a monopoly over the production of a part

21、icular product must make a profit. There are three possibilities: making profit, break even and losing. 192P ($)0QP ($)0QSAC1SAC2SAC3SMCSMCP1P1DDMRMR193完全壟斷廠商沒有一條短期供給曲線 In perfect competition , one can define a unique relationship between the price of the product and the amount supplied. But in mono

22、poly, there is no such kind of relationship 在完全壟斷情況下，壟斷廠商是價格的設(shè)立者。可是市場價格和邊際收益并不相等。對于某一種市場需求曲線以及其相應(yīng)的邊際收益曲線，只能根據(jù)該廠商的邊際成本曲線與邊際收益曲線的交點來確定供給量，其他任何點都不起作用。當(dāng)整個市場需求狀況發(fā)生變化時，邊際收益曲線也發(fā)生變化，廠商又按邊際成本等于新的邊際收益曲線的交點來確定產(chǎn)量，而原來的交點則失去效力。因此，完全壟斷的廠商不能夠僅由邊際成本曲線的變化來確定供給量。 194三. Long-Run Equilibrium of the Firm In contract to p

23、erfect competition, the long-run equilibrium of a monopolistic industry is not marked by the absence of economic profits or losses. If a monopolist earns a short-run economic profit, it will not be confronted in the long run with competitors, unless the industry is no longer a monopoly. Thus the lon

24、g-run equilibrium of an industry under monopoly may be characterized by econo- mic profits. The condition of a long-run equilibrium of monopoly:： LMCSMCMR，and SACLAC 195LACLMCSAC1SMCLMCMRD0CP1QQ1P ($)In the long-run equilibrium of a firm，SMC1LMCMR ， P = P1 ， SAC1C，average profit is P1C，total profit

25、is P1COQ1 196完全壟斷的效率分析及壟斷勢力的測定BPEPEP($)CDAEFMCdMRQ0QEQEDead-weight loss of monopoly ( 無謂壟斷損失)勒納的壟斷勢力度197 Comparison of monopoly with perfect competition First, under perfect competition, each firm operates at the point at which both long-run and short-run average costs are a minimum. However, under

26、monopoly, although the plant that is used will produce the monopolists long-run equilibrium output at minimum average cost, it is not the plant that will produce the product at the lowest possible average cost. Second, the output of a perfectly competitive industry tends to be greater and price tend

27、s to be lower than under monopoly.198四. Public Regulation of Monopoly Public regulation by government Price control ( 價格管制 )Lump sum tax ( 征收定額稅)Per unit tax ( 征收定率稅)199價格管制Price control The government regulatory commissions can set the price or ceiling price (最高限價) at the lever at which it equals a

28、verage total cost, including a “fair” rate of return on the companys investment. The regulatory commissions also govern the extent to which price discrimination is used by the public utilities. Intricate systems of price discrimination exist in the rate structures of the electric and gas companies,

29、the telephone companies, and so forth. 200SACSMCDMRCEB0QP ($)KL201征收定額稅Lump Sum Tax A certain amount of tax within a certain time period When the regulatory commission levy a lump sum tax to a monopolistic firm, the firms quantity of production and the price of its products will not be changed. The

30、firms monopolistic profit will be decreased.202SACSMCDMRA0QP($)SAC203征收定率稅Per Unit Tax The tax levied to each product or to the price of products Two methods Levied to each product (從量稅) Levied to the price of products (從價稅) When regulatory commission levy per unit tax to a monopolistic firm，some bu

31、rden will be transferred to consumers. The degree of burden depends on the price elasticity of products. The smaller the price elasticity of products is, the more losses the consumers suffered. Vice versa. 204SACSMCDMR0QP($)SACSMCEE205五. Price Discrimination Price discrimination ( 價格差別 ) Price discr

32、imination occurs when the same commodity is sold at more than one price. Under what conditions will a monopolist be able and willing to engage in price discrimination? The necessary conditions are that buyers fall into classes with considerable differences in the price elasticity of demand for the p

33、roduct, and that these classes can be identified and segregated at moderate cost. Also, it is important that buyers be unable to transfer the com-modity easily from one class to another,thus making it difficult to maintain the price differentials between classes. 206 The differences between classes

34、of buyers in the price elasticity of demand may be due to differences between classes in income level, differences between classes in tastes , or differences between classes in the availability of substitutes. For example, the price elasticity of demand for a certain good may be lower for the rich t

35、han for the poor.207 First-degree price discrimination ( 第一級價格差別 ) The monopolist can charge each consumer a different price so as to extract from each consumer the full value of his or her consumers surplus. 第一級價格差別假定完全壟斷廠商能夠做到根據(jù)每一個產(chǎn)品對每一個消費者所產(chǎn)生的效用大小來取價Q0P($)208 Second-degree price discrimination (

36、第二級價格差別 ) The monopolist take part, but not all, of the buyers consumers surplus.AEBFCDQP1P2P3Q1Q2Q30P($)采取分批取價的方法，能夠在相當(dāng)程度上提高其總收益和總利潤。209 Third-degree price discrimination ( 第三級價格差別 ) The monopolist will maximize its profits by allocating the total output between the two classes ( or markets ) in su

37、ch a way that marginal revenue in one class is equal to marginal revenue in the other class.P1P2P3Q2Q1Q3QP($)0D2D1 MRMCMR1MR2無論哪個市場，當(dāng)產(chǎn)品增加供給數(shù)量時，其價格必定下降，因而其邊際收益也會下降。這樣，完全壟斷廠商最終一定會將兩個市場的銷售量調(diào)整到 上。 210 Which price of class ( or market ) larger than another depends on the price elasticity of demand of the

38、se two different classes ( or markets ). The conclusion: If e e，then PP； If e e，then PP； If e e，then PP. 211 The two preconditions of third-degree price discrimination： The classes ( or markets ) must be separated. 否則甲市場中的購買者獲知乙市場中的價格低，便轉(zhuǎn)移到乙市場中去購買；或反過來，乙市場中的購買者知道甲市場中的價格低，而跑到甲市場中去購買，這樣，差別價格則無法成立。 The

39、 price elasticity are different between this two classes ( or markets ) 如果需求曲線完全相同，價格也完全一樣，差別價格便無法成立。 212Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly Monopolistic Competition Oligopoly8213一. Monopolistic Competition Monopolistic Competition ( 壟斷競爭 ) Monopolistic Competition is a market structure that has

40、elements of both monopoly and perfect competition. Under monopolistic competition, there is a large number of firms producing and selling goods that are close substitutes, but that are not completely homogeneous from one seller to another. 214 There is a product differentiation ( 產(chǎn)品差別 ) in a monopol

41、istic competition market. ( P 446 ) Each seller tries to make its product a little different , by altering the physical makeup of the product, the services it offers, and other such variables. Other differences are based on brand name, image-making, advertising claims, and so forth. In this way, eac

42、h seller has some amount of monopoly power, but it usually is small, because the product of other firms are very similar.215 Put forward by E. Chamberlin ( 張伯倫 ). That is that if there is product differentiation, it is no longer easy to define an industry as in the perfect competition market,since e

43、ach firm produce a somewhat different product. Nevertheless, E. Chamberlin believes that it is useful to group together firms producing similar products and call them a product group. Product Group ( 產(chǎn)品集團(tuán) )216 張伯倫理論的假定條件有以下幾種 ：每一種差別產(chǎn)品均是由許多廠商生產(chǎn)出來的，在同一產(chǎn)品類型中，它們是可以互相替換的 由于生產(chǎn)同類產(chǎn)品的廠商數(shù)量很多，因此對每個廠商來說，其競爭力是微不

44、足道的，當(dāng)它采取競爭措施時，很容易促使其他廠商采取報復(fù)性行為 生產(chǎn)同類產(chǎn)品的所有廠商所面臨的需求曲線和他們的成本曲線都相同217壟斷競爭廠商所面臨的市場需求曲線 Demand curves under monopolistic competition 02468101224681012141618202224P($)qABCDd218 在壟斷競爭的市場這一概念中，競爭的含義在于個別廠商面對著其他生產(chǎn)同類產(chǎn)品的“不完全競爭”，因而個別廠商不能隨意確定自己產(chǎn)品的價格。它必須既要考慮到自身個別產(chǎn)品的需求曲線，又同時要考慮到存在類似替代品競爭情況下的需求曲線。 壟斷競爭情況下的短期均衡，在“壟斷”這一

45、點上，與完全壟斷者完全相同，就是短期均衡條件為邊際收益等于上升時的邊際成本，即上升時的。這一點上的產(chǎn)量對個別廠商的利潤最大。 Equilibrium price and output in the short-run 21924681012141618202224P($)20468101224681012141618202224P($)20468101224681012141618202224204681012P($)ACBESMCDmr3d3ACHGFd2SMCmr2DACHJSMCmr1L220Equilibrium price and output in the long-run The

46、 condition of long-run equilibrium is that long-run marginal costs must equal to long-run marginal revenue. 在狀態(tài)下，既沒有新廠商加入市場，也沒有原廠商退出市場，這時的壟斷廠商處于長期均衡狀態(tài)。在長期均衡狀況下，壟斷競爭廠商仍然能夠獲取已被包括在成本中的正常利潤，所消失的只是超額利潤。 22124681012141618202224P($)024681012qLACJLMCMNDDmrd222二.Oligopoly ( P 464 )Oligopoly (寡頭) Oligopoly is

47、 a market structure characterized by a small number of firms and a great deal of interdependence, actual and perceived, among them. Each oligopolist formul- ates its policies with an eye to their effect on its rivals. Since an oligopoly contains a small number of firms, any change in the firms price

48、 or output influences the sales and profit of competitors. Moreover,since there are only a few of firms, each firm must recognize that changes in its own policies are likely to elicit changes in the policies of its competitors as well. 223 The conditions of oligopoly market 為便于分析起見，假定在一個寡頭市場里的產(chǎn)品是同質(zhì)均

49、一的。 假定寡頭廠商是在完全競爭的市場中購買各種生產(chǎn)投入要素。 由于寡頭廠商在市場中互為依存，在反托拉斯法的限制下，寡頭廠商如果互相串謀，可能獲利更大 。224 There are many reasons for oligopoly: One being economies of scale. Some industries want to achieve low costs. In addition, there may be economies of scale in sales promotion as well as in production, and this too may p

50、romote oligopoly. Further, there may be barriers that make it very difficult to enter the industry. Finally, of course, the number of firms in an industry may decrease in response to the desire to weaken competitive pressures. 225Oligopoly Model The Kinked Demand Curve ( 折彎需求曲線 ) This model is to ex

51、plain the rigidity of prices in oligopolistic markets. This model was due to American economist Paul Sweezy ( 保羅 斯威齊 ) who in 1939 advanced， so it is called “ Sweezy Model ” At that time, there was a widespread feeling that price in such markets tended to be rigid. A classic example occurred in the steel industry. From 1901 to 1906, the