《新編土木工程專業(yè)英語》建筑工程方向錢詠梅

1、English article in Civil Engineering(土木工程專業(yè)英語課文)11 Careers in Civil Engineering Engineering is a profession, which means that an engineer must have a specialized university education. Many government jurisdictions also have licensing procedures which require engineering graduates to pass an examinat

2、ion, similar to the bar examination for a lawyer, before they can actively start on their careers.2難點：Which 引導非限制性定語從句，修飾前面的主語第二句如何翻譯比較通順 government jurisdiction 如何翻 字面意思 政府管轄權(quán)，權(quán)限有許可證程序，很生硬。生詞：specialized專門的, 專科的jurisdiction管轄權(quán)，權(quán)限 license許可（證），執(zhí)照bar 律師業(yè)3 土木工程是一個意味著工程師必須要經(jīng)過專門的大學教育的職業(yè)。許多政府管轄部門還有（一套）認證

3、程序，這一程序要求工科畢業(yè)生在他們能積極地開始（從事）他們的事業(yè)之前，通過（認證）考試, 這種考試類似于律師職業(yè)里的律師考試一樣。4 In the university, mathematics, physics, and chemistry are heavily emphasized throughout the engineering curriculum, but particularly in the first two or three years. Mathematics is very important in all branches of engineering, so i

4、t is greatly stressed. Today, mathematics includes courses in statistics, which deals with gathering, classifying, and using numerical data, or pieces of information. mathematics n.數(shù)學 curriculum n.課程 branch n. (學科)分科stress 強調(diào) courses n.課程,路線 statistics n.統(tǒng)計學,統(tǒng)計 deal with涉及，處理5 An important aspect of

5、 statistical mathematics is probability, which deals with what may happen when there are different factors, or variables, that can change the results of a problem. Before the construction of a bridge is undertaken, for example, a statistical study is made of the amount of traffic (which) the bridge

6、will be expected to handle. In the design of the bridge, variables such as water pressure on the foundation, impact, the effects of different wind forces, and many other factors must be considered6handle 的翻譯（如何意譯）處理-承受（交通量）省略which 引導定語從句 probability n.可能性, 或然性, 概率 undertake vt.承擔amount of traffic n.

7、交通量impact碰撞，沖擊Variable 變量7 大學里, 工科課程中著重強調(diào)數(shù)學、物理, 和化學,尤其在開始的二到三年。在工科所有分支中，數(shù)學非常重要, 因此它被著重地強調(diào)。今天, 數(shù)學包括統(tǒng)計學中的課程主要涉及集合, 分類, 和使用數(shù)字數(shù)據(jù), 或信息。 統(tǒng)計數(shù)學的一個重要方面是概率, 它涉及當有改變問題的結(jié)果的不同的因素, 或變量時，可能會發(fā)生什么。例如，在承擔橋梁的建設之前, 運用統(tǒng)計研究來預計未來橋梁期望承受的交通量. 在橋梁的設計中，(各種)變量如作用在基礎上的水壓, 碰撞, 不同的風力的作用, 以及許多其它因素必須考慮。8 Because a great deal of cal

8、culation is involved in solving these problems, computer programming is now included in almost all engineering curricula. Computers, of course, can solve many problems involving calculations with greater speed and accuracy than a human being can. But computer are useless unless they are given clear

9、and accurate instructions and information-in other words, a good program.be involved in涉及 program 編程序，電腦程序 curricula n.課程 instruction指令 9 由于在解決這些問題涉及大量的計算, 現(xiàn)在幾乎所有工科課程中都包括計算機編程。當然,計算機能比人類以更快的速度和準確性解決許多問題。但如果不給計算機清楚和準確指令和信息，換句話說，一個好程序，它也是無用的。 10 In spite of the heavy emphasis on technical subjects in

10、the engineering curriculum, a current trend is to require students to take courses in the social science and the language arts. The relationship between engineering and society is getting closer; it is sufficient, therefore, to say again that the work performed by an engineer affects society in many

11、 different and important ways that he or she should be aware of. An engineer also needs a sufficient command of language to be able to prepare reports that are clear and, in many cases, persuasive. An engineer engaged in research will need to be able to write up his or her finding for scientific pub

12、lications. 11technical subject技術科目current trend當前趨勢 social science n.社會科學language arts n.語言藝術學language n.語言，(運用語言的)方式，語言表達能力,command 把握， 支配， 控制-翻譯時需要引申engage in v.使從事于, 參加write up v.詳細描寫scientific publication 科技出版物It is that 引導定語從句,that后面是真正的主語12 雖然，在工科課程中，對技術科目著重強調(diào)，但當前的趨勢還是要求學生學習社會科學和語言藝術的課程。工程和社會間

13、的關系變得更加緊密; 因此,再一次充分說明, 工程師負責（承擔）的工程在許多不同和重要的方面影響社會,這些方面是他們所知道的。并且，工程師需要一種很肯定（自信）語言表達方式來準備報告，這個報告要清楚明了，且在多數(shù)情況下, 是令人信服的。參與研究的工程師要能為科學出版物詳細描述他們的發(fā)現(xiàn)。13 The last two years of an engineering program include subjects within the students field of specialization. For the student who is preparing to become a c

14、ivil engineer, these specialized courses may deal with such subjects as geodetic surveying, soil mechanics, or hydraulics. subject科目, 學科 geodetic surveying大地測量 soil mechanics n.土力學 hydraulics n.水力學 specialization 專業(yè) 最后兩年的工科課程計劃包括學生專業(yè)領域的學科。為準備使學生成為一名土木工程師, 這些專業(yè)課程可能會涉及諸如大地測量、土力學，或水力學。14 Active recruit

15、ing for engineers often begins before the students last year in the university. Many different corporation and government agencies have competed for the services of engineers in recent years. In the science-oriented society of today, people who have technical training are, of course, in demand. Youn

16、g engineers may choose to go into environmental or sanitary engineering, for example, where environmental concerns have created many openings; or they may choose construction firms that specialize in highway work; or they may prefer to work with one of the government agencies that deal with water re

17、source. Indeed, the choice is large and varied. 15Active 的含義：busy,忙碌的 Recruit 招聘corporation法人, 公司, 企業(yè), government agency政府機構(gòu) compete for為.競爭services of engineers 中的service的翻譯 服務 為爭奪工程師的服務而競爭-其實就是 爭奪工程師oriented adj.導向的 in demand有需要, 銷路好，顧客需要-受歡迎的 sanitary engineering n.衛(wèi)生工程 concern 關注，涉及, 關系到opening空

18、缺, 機會work with與.共事, 與.合作supervisor 管理人員16 學生在大學中的最后一年前常常就開始了頻繁的工程師招聘。近年來，許多不同的公司和政府機構(gòu)為爭奪工程師而競爭。在今天這個重視科學技術的社會，受過技術訓練的人當然是受歡迎的。年輕工程師也許選擇進入環(huán)境或衛(wèi)生工程領域工作, 例如, 在環(huán)境問題方面創(chuàng)造的許多機會; 或他們也許選擇專門的高速公路工程的建筑公司; 或他們也許喜歡與政府機構(gòu)當中處理水資源的機構(gòu)之一共事。的確, 選擇很多且多樣。 17 When the young engineer has finally started actual practice, the

19、 theoretical knowledge acquired in the university must be applied, He or she will probably be assigned at the beginning to work with a team of engineers. Thus, on-the-job training can be acquired that will demonstrate his or her ability to translate theory into practice to the supervisors. assign分配,

20、 指派 on-the-job adj.在職的，現(xiàn)場的 demonstrate證明,示范,論證supervisor主管人，管理人當年輕工程師最后開始了真正的實踐, 必須要運用到大學中學到的理論知識。最初，他或她可能會被分配到與工程隊合作。從而, 他們會得到在職的培訓，這個培訓將向管理人員證明他們將理論轉(zhuǎn)化為實踐的能力。18 The civil engineer may work in research, design, construction supervision, maintenance, or even in sales or management. Each of these area

21、s involves different duties, different emphases, and different uses of engineers knowledge and experience.civil engineer n.土木工程師 construction supervision施工監(jiān)督，施工管理 土木工程師可能在研究、設計、施工管理、養(yǎng)護或者甚至銷售或管理單位工作。每一個工作領域都涉及不同的職責，不同的著重點以及運用不同的工程理論和經(jīng)驗。19 Research is one of the most important aspects of scientific an

22、d engineering practice. A researcher usually works as a member of a team with other scientists and engineers. He or she is often employed in a laboratory that is financed by government or industry. Areas of research connected with civil engineering include soil mechanics and soil stabilization techn

23、iques, and also the development and testing of new structural materials.soil mechanics n.土力學 finance vt.供給.經(jīng)費, 負擔經(jīng)費 soil stabilization土壤加固法，土壤穩(wěn)定development發(fā)展, 開發(fā)20 研究是科學和工程實踐的當中最重要的一個方面。研究員通常作為一個團隊的成員與其它科學家和工程師一起合作。他或她經(jīng)常受雇于政府或企業(yè)提供經(jīng)費的實驗室。與土木工程相關的研究領域包括土力學和土壤加固技術, 并且還包括新結(jié)構(gòu)材料的開發(fā)和實驗。21 Civil engineering

24、 projects are almost always unique; that is, each has its own problems and design feature. Therefore, careful study is given to each project even before design work begins. The study includes survey both of topography and subsoil features of the proposed site. It also includes a consideration of pos

25、sible alternatives, such as a concrete gravity dam or an earth-fill embankment dam. The economic factors involved in each of the possible alternatives must also be weighed. Today, a study usually includes a considerations of the environmental impact of the project. Many engineers, usually working as

26、 a team that includes surveyors, specialists in soil mechanics, and experts in design and construction, are involved in making these feasibility studies.22Weighed 的翻譯-斟酌Survey 調(diào)查，勘察，測量topography n. 地形，地形學subsoil天然地基，下層土，底土alternative n.二中擇一, 可供選擇的辦法, 事物 adj.選擇性的, 二中擇一的concrete gravity dam 混凝土重力式壩 em

27、bankment dam n.填筑壩,土石壩specialist 專家feasibility study可行性研究23 土木工程項目幾乎是唯一（獨一）的; 就是說，每個工程有它自己的難題和設計特點。所以, 在設計工作開始以前，要仔細的研究每個項目。研究包括勘測工程位置的地形和地基特點。它還包括考慮可能的比選方案, 譬如一個混凝土重力式壩或填土的土石壩。經(jīng)濟因素與在每個可能的比選方案有關，也必須斟酌。今天, 研究通常包括項目的環(huán)境影響的考慮。許多工程師, 通常在一起工作組成一個團隊，這個團隊包括測量員、土力學方面的專家和設計施工方面的專家，來參與制定這些可行性研究。 24 Many civil

28、engineers, among them the top people in the field, work in design. As we have seen, civil engineers work on many different kinds of structures, so it is normal practice for an engineer to specialize in just one kind. In designing buildings, engineers often work as consultants to architectural or con

29、struction firms. Dams, bridges, water supply systems, and other large projects ordinarily employ several engineers whose work is coordinated by a system engineer who is in charge of the entire project. In many cases, engineers from other disciplines are involved. In a dam project, for example, elect

30、rical and mechanical engineers work on the design of the Powerhouse and its equipment. In other cases, civil engineers are assigned to work on a project in another field; in the space program, for instance, civil engineers were necessary in the design and construction of such structures as launching

31、 pads and rocket storage facilities. 25consultant n.顧問, 商議者, 咨詢者water supply system 給水系統(tǒng) coordinate 協(xié)同 system engineer n.系統(tǒng)工程師discipline學科powerhouse n.發(fā)電站launching pad n.導彈或火箭發(fā)射場, 發(fā)射臺storage facility貯存設備26 許多土木工程師在設計領域工作,他們中的許多人是這個行業(yè)的佼佼者。正如我們所見，土木工程師研究許多不同的結(jié)構(gòu), 因此工程師專門研究一類結(jié)構(gòu)是通常的做法（一般的慣例）。在建筑設計中, 工程師經(jīng)

32、常作為建筑或結(jié)構(gòu)公司的顧問。水壩、橋梁、給水系統(tǒng), 和其它大項目通常；聘用幾位系統(tǒng)工程師（總工程師） ，他們的工作是協(xié)助負責整個項目。在許多情況下, 也需要（涉及）其它學科的工程師。例如,在水壩項目中, 電子和機械工程師負責發(fā)電站及其設備的設計。在其它情況下, 土木工程師被分配到其它領域的項目上工作; 例如,在空間項目中, 需要土木工程師設計和施工諸如發(fā)射臺和火箭存貯設施這樣的結(jié)構(gòu)。 27Construction is a complicated process on almost all engineering projects. It involves scheduling the wor

33、k and utilizing the equipment and the materials so that costs are kept as low as possible. Safety factors must also be taken into account, since construction can be very dangerous. Many civil engineers therefore specialize in the construction phase.Scheduling n 行程安排, 進度安排 utilize 利用，使用 take into acc

34、ount 考慮，重視 civil engineer n.土木工程師 specialize in vt.專攻,專門研究construction phase 施工階段 28在幾乎所有土木工程項目中，施工是復雜的過程。它包括項目的進度安排和設備的使用以及材料，以便使得造價盡可能降低。必須考慮安全因素，因為施工很危險。許多土木工程師因此專門研究施工階段。29Modern Buildings and Structural Materials現(xiàn)代建筑及結(jié)構(gòu)材料30 Many great buildings (that are) built in the earlier ages are still in

35、existence and in use. Among them are the Pantheon and the Colosseum in Rome, Hagia Sophia in Istanbul; the Gothic churches of France and England, and the Renaissance cathedrals, with their great domes, like the Duomo in Florence and St. Peters in Rome. They are massive structures with thick stone wa

36、lls that counteract the thrust of their great weight. Thrust is the pressure exerted by each part of a structure on its other parts. 31Pantheon 帕提儂神廟Colosseum n.羅馬圓形大劇場，角斗場Hagia Sophia 圣索非亞教堂Istanbul 伊斯坦布兒(土耳其首都)renaissance文藝復興時期 cathedral n.大教堂gothic church n.哥特式教堂dome n.圓屋頂，穹頂duomo n.大教堂, 中央寺院Flor

37、ence 佛羅倫薩St. Peters 圣彼得大教堂massive adj.厚重的, 大塊的, 魁偉的, 結(jié)實的counteract vt.抵消，對抗thrust 推力引申為軸向壓力 exert 施加(壓力等) ，作用,施加 32 許多偉大的建筑很早就修建了現(xiàn)在仍然還存在并在使用中。在他們之中就包括希臘的帕提儂神廟和羅馬的角斗場，伊斯坦布爾的圣索非亞教堂; 法國和英國哥特式教會, 和有著宏偉圓頂?shù)奈乃噺团d時期大教堂,如佛羅倫薩的中央寺院和羅馬的圣彼得大教堂。他們是使用厚重石頭墻體來抵消他們巨大自重的巨型結(jié)構(gòu)。軸向壓力來自于結(jié)構(gòu)的其它部份對其的傳導。33 These great building

38、s were not the product of knowledge of mathematics and physics. They were constructed instead on the basis of experience and observation, often as the result of trial and error. One of the reasons they have survived is because of the great strength that was built into them-strength greater than nece

39、ssary in most cases. But the engineers of earlier times also had their failure. In Rome, for example, most of the people lived in insulae, great tenement blocks that were often ten stories high. Many of them were poorly constructed and sometimes collapsed with considerable loss or life.34第二段 生詞inste

40、ad adv. 不是.而是，代替,當作,trial and error n.反復試驗,不斷摸索insulae 公寓，群屋tenement block n. 經(jīng)濟公寓 poorly adv. 拙劣地,貧乏地considerable adj.相當大(或多)的collapse n.倒塌，崩塌35 這些偉大的建筑不是數(shù)學和物理知識的產(chǎn)物。而是根據(jù)經(jīng)驗和觀察建造的, 經(jīng)常是不斷摸索的產(chǎn)物。他們依然存在的原因之一是由于被修建得能承受很大的力量-在許多情況下大于他們需要的力量。但更早的時期的工程師也有過失敗。例如,在羅馬, 大多數(shù)人民居住在公寓里, 大的經(jīng)濟公寓經(jīng)常有十層樓高。許多修建得很拙劣且不時倒塌，造

41、成了了相當大的財產(chǎn)或生命損失。36 Today, however, the engineer has the advantage not only of empirical information, but also of scientific data that permit him to make careful calculations in advance. When a modem engineer plans a structure, he takes into account the total weight of all its component materials. Thi

42、s is known as the dead load, which is the weight of the structure itself, He must also consider the live load, the weight of all the people, cars, furniture, machines, and so on that the structure will support when it is in use. In structures such as bridges that will handle fast automobile traffic,

43、 he must consider the impact, the force at which the live load will be exerted on the structure, He must also determine the safety factor, that is, an additional capability to make the structure stronger than the combination of the three other factors.37empirical adj.完全根據(jù)經(jīng)驗的, 經(jīng)驗主義的in advance 提前；預先 p

44、lan vt.計劃, 設計take into account v.重視, 考慮 component adj.組成的, 構(gòu)成的n.成分dead load 恒載，永久荷載live load 活載，活荷載handle 處理，操作-承受automobile 汽車impact n.碰撞, 沖擊，撞擊 safety factor n.安全系數(shù)exert 作用，施加(壓力等)38 然而，今天工程師不僅有經(jīng)驗信息的優(yōu)勢，而且還有科學數(shù)據(jù)，允許他在事先進行仔細的計算。當現(xiàn)代工程師設計一個結(jié)構(gòu)時，他要考慮所有組成材料的總重量。這就是所說的恒載，他是結(jié)構(gòu)自身的重量，他還必須考慮活載，即所有人群、汽車, 家具, 機器

45、, 等等結(jié)構(gòu)在使用中需要承受的荷載。結(jié)構(gòu)，比如橋梁將要承受高速的汽車通行（行使），它必須考慮沖力力，這個力是活載作用在結(jié)構(gòu)上的。他還必須確定安全因素，也即是，額外的承載能力以確保結(jié)構(gòu)的強度大于這三個其他因素的組合作用。39 The modern engineer must also understand the different stresses to which the materials in a structure are subject. These include the forces of compression and tension. In compression the m

46、aterial is pressed or pushed together; in tension the material is pulled apart or stretched, like a rubber band. In addition to tension and compression, another force is at work, namely shear, which we defined as the tendency of a material to fracture along the lines of stress. The shear might occur

47、 in a vertical plane, but it also might run along the horizontal axis of the beam, the neutral plane, where there is neither tension nor compression. 40Subject使受到, 使遭到 compression 壓力，壓縮 tension拉力Press 擠壓，受壓 pull apart v.撕開 stretch v.伸展, 伸長rubber band n.橡皮圈at work adv.在工作, 在運轉(zhuǎn)，在起作用shear 剪力fracture v.

48、(使)破碎, (使)破裂，斷裂vertical plane n.垂直面horizontal axis水平軸neutral plane中性面41 現(xiàn)代工程師還要知道結(jié)構(gòu)中材料承受的不同的力。這些力包括壓力和拉力這對互反的力。受壓時，材料受到擠壓或是被推倒一起；受拉時，材料被撕開或是被拉長，就像一根橡皮圈。除了拉力和壓力以外，還有另一種力作用于結(jié)構(gòu)上，也就是剪力，我們定義使材料趨于沿著力的作用線斷裂的力為剪力。剪力可能在垂直面作用，但是也有可能沿著梁的水平軸，既不受拉也不受壓的中性軸作用。 42 Altogether, three forces can act on a structure: ve

49、rtical-those that act up or down; horizontal-those that act sideways; and those that act upon it with a rotating or turning motion. Forces that act at an angle are a combination of horizontal and vertical forces. Since the structures designed by civil engineers are intended to be stationary or stabl

50、e, these forces must be kept in balance. The vertical forces, for example, must be equal to each other. If a beam supports a load above, the beam itself must have sufficient strength to counterbalance that weight. The horizontal forces must also equal each other so that there is not too much thrust

51、either to the right or to the left. And forces that might pull the structure around must be countered with forces that pull in the opposite direction. 43act on v.對.起作用,作用于 act 產(chǎn)生.的效果，擔當，見效 vertical 垂直的horizontal 水平的sideways adv.向一旁rotating轉(zhuǎn)動的, 旋轉(zhuǎn)的 turning n.旋轉(zhuǎn), 轉(zhuǎn)向 motion n.運動, 動作stationary固定的 stable

52、 adj.穩(wěn)定的counterbalance vt使平衡thrust 推力 opposite direction相反方向，反向44 總之，這三個力會作用在結(jié)構(gòu)上：豎直的-那些向上或向下作用的力；水平的那些向一側(cè)作用的力；以及那些使旋轉(zhuǎn)或轉(zhuǎn)動的作用力。以一個角度作用的力是水平力和豎向力的合力。因為由土木工程師設計的結(jié)構(gòu)要固定或者穩(wěn)定，這些力必須保持平衡。例如，豎向力必須相互平衡。如果一片梁要支撐作用在其上的荷載，梁自身必須要有足夠的強度來平衡這個重量。水平力也必須相互平衡以使得沒有向左或向右的太大推力。以及那些可能使結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)動的力必須和相反方向轉(zhuǎn)動的力相平衡。45 One of the most

53、spectacular engineering failures of modern times, the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940, was the result of not considering the last of these factors carefully enough. When strong gusts of wind, up to sixty-five kilometers an hour, struck the bridge during a storm, they set up waves along

54、 the roadway of the bridge and also a lateral motion that caused the roadway to fall. Fortunately, engineers learn from mistakes, so it is now common practice to test scale models of bridges in wind tunnels for aerodynamic resistance.46Spectacular 轟動一時的Tacoma 塔科馬美國華盛頓州西部港市Narrows 紐約灣海峽(位于美國)，海峽gust

55、of wind陣風strike撞擊, 沖擊 lateral motion橫向運動, 側(cè)擺scale model縮尺模型，幾何相似模型wind tunnel n.風洞 aerodynamic resistance空氣動力阻力47橋梁史上最有名的事故之一。美國華盛頓州TacomaNarrows大橋倒塌的錄像。這次事故令橋梁的設計規(guī)范重新修改，風力和共振分析成為橋梁設計必不可少的一部分。 這次事故之所以有名，還在于大橋的倒塌過程被人錄了下來。當時有一對新人正在橋頭舉行婚禮，攝影師本來是去拍喜慶場面的，不想?yún)s記錄了一座大橋的末日。大橋在風中扭動的場面令人震撼，只使用了三個月。主跨853m。48 現(xiàn)代最

56、為轟動一時的工程事故之一：1940年的TacomaNarrows大橋，就是因為對這些因素的最后一個因素：扭轉(zhuǎn)考慮的不夠仔細而導致的結(jié)果。當時在一次暴風雨中，時速達到65公里每小時的強陣風沖擊著大橋，他們把大橋沿行車道吹成波浪形加上橫向扭動導致大橋的行車道落水。幸運的是，工程師從錯誤中吸取教訓，因此現(xiàn)在通常要在風洞試驗室中進行橋梁的縮尺模型試驗以確定其空氣動力阻力。 49 The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar ma

57、terials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar-like substance or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or clamps to strengthen their buildings. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iro

58、n bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called pozzolana, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.50principal adj.主要的, 首要的masonry砌石 brick磚 tile 瓦course行列, 層 layer n.層mortar砂漿，灰漿 bitumen n.瀝青tar焦油, 柏油，焦油瀝青binding agent蟲膠粘合劑，接合劑 rod n.桿, 棒 clamp

59、 n.夾子, 夾具, 夾鉗 drill 鉆孔 rust 生銹natural cement天然水泥pozzolana n.火山灰(可用作水泥原料)volcanic ash 火山灰51早期主要的建筑材料是木材和砌石磚，石頭或是瓦片以及類似這類的材料。用砂漿或是瀝青，一種類似焦油的物質(zhì)或是其他粘合劑將各層結(jié)合在一起。希臘人和羅馬人有時使用鐵桿或是夾子來加強他們的建筑。例如，希臘帕提農(nóng)神廟的立柱，為了插鐵棒在立柱中鉆孔，這些鐵棒現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)銹蝕了。羅馬人也使用稱為火山灰的天然水泥，從火山灰中制成，當在水中時就會變得和石頭一樣硬。 52 Both steel and cement, the two most

60、 important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon, had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Besse