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1、Collapse of Antithesis & Indirect Speech Acts1OutlineReview Thesis and Antithesis Semantic problemsCollapse of Antithesis Syntactic problemsIndirect Speech Acts2Review Thesis and Antithesis不可歸納論(irreducibility thesis/ thesis):認(rèn)為人們所說的話語不但表達(dá)了一定的命題內(nèi)容,而且也實施了一定的言外行為,實施某一言外行為可能有多種方式,但不管以什么方式,必須通過一套恰當(dāng)條件才能對

2、它作出描述和解釋。命題和言外行為是兩個不可分離的語義層次。對言外行為的研究屬于對行為的研究,無法歸入到狹義的對真實條件的語義學(xué)的研究中。代表人物:Searle 3對立論(antithesis):解釋言外之力不需要一套特殊的理論;完全可以在一般的句法理論和真實條件語義學(xué)中得到解釋。 代表人物:Ross (“行事分析”或“行事假設(shè)”)4Collapse of AntithesisAntithesis is clearly an elegant theory, promising to reduce what seems to be an apparently irreducibly pragmat

3、ic aspect of meaning to relatively well-understood areas of linguistic theory. However, it is now all but certain that Antithesis, at least in its full form, is untenable. For it runs into insurmountable difficulties on both the semantic and syntactic fronts.5Semantic problems(一)首先,論點(diǎn)派指出對立論所謂的行事假設(shè)是不

4、嚴(yán)格的,不足以作為把言語行為歸入真實條件語義研究中去的一個根據(jù)。根據(jù)對立論的行事假設(shè),每一個句子,不論在其表層結(jié)構(gòu)中是否包含一個明確的行事動詞,在其深層結(jié)構(gòu)中都有一個符合I + (hereby) VP you (that) S 這一公式的句子作為它的最高一層的結(jié)構(gòu),那么,從真實條件語義學(xué)的角度來說,這個表層結(jié)構(gòu)的句子和它的深層結(jié)構(gòu)應(yīng)該具有同樣的真實值(即如果表層結(jié)構(gòu)的句子是真實的,那么它的深層結(jié)構(gòu)也應(yīng)該是真實的;如果表層結(jié)構(gòu)的句子是謬誤的,那么它的深層結(jié)構(gòu)也應(yīng)該是謬誤的),但實際上并非如此。6For example(1). The world is flat.(2). I state the

5、world is flat. 根據(jù)行事假設(shè),(2)是(1)的深層結(jié)構(gòu),因此(1)和(2)應(yīng)具有同樣的真實值。但根據(jù)常識,人人都知道(1)是不真實的,但(2)卻未必一定是不真實的,因為不能排除有人會說“The world is flat”這樣的話的可能性,不論他是出于無知還是另有意圖。 7論點(diǎn)派的分析論點(diǎn)派區(qū)分出同一話語的兩個意義范疇:言外行為和命題。言外行為通過恰當(dāng)條件來解釋,命題才具有真實值,這樣,我們便可以說,“The world is flat”這一話語的命題內(nèi)容是謬誤的,但說話人所實施的言語行為(即state)則無所謂真實或謬誤,只要這一行為所要求的恰當(dāng)條件得到滿足,便可以說這一行為得

6、到成功的實施。 Snow is green.I state that snow is green8Semantic problems(二)其次,論點(diǎn)派針對對立派常常引用的第二種現(xiàn)象即句子中一些看起來其修飾對象似乎不甚明確的副詞或狀語從句,對立派認(rèn)為應(yīng)該修飾深層結(jié)構(gòu)中的行事動詞,論點(diǎn)派就此提出反論據(jù)。 9副 詞論點(diǎn)派指出,像frankly這樣的副詞的作用并不明確。在句子中存在和不存在明確的行事動詞,frankly的作用并不見得一樣。 3). I tell you frankly youre a rascal. (4). Frankly, youre a rascal. (5). John tol

7、d Bill frankly that he was a rascal.10根據(jù)對立論的行事假設(shè),句中的frankly都應(yīng)該修飾行事動詞tell,不管它在深層結(jié)構(gòu)中是否出現(xiàn)。但實際上,如果在(3)中的frankly還存在修飾tell的可能性(事實上還存在不修飾tell的可能性),那么在(4)中就很難說一定是修飾tell的。在語言交際中,frankly可能起一種警告作用,引起聽話人的注意,說話人在警告聽話人,他將要說一些不太中聽的話。在(5)中frankly既不修飾told也不起警告作用,而是修飾約翰告訴比爾一些事情這一行為。 11狀 語 從 句For example: (5)Whats the

8、 time, because Ive got to go out at 8 ?(6)I ask you whats the time, because Ive got to go out at 8 ?(7)Johns at Sues house because his car is outside.(8)I state to you that Johns at Sues house because his car is outside.(9)I believe that Johns at Sues house because his car is outside. 12根據(jù)對立論,(7)中的b

9、ecause從句應(yīng)該被理解為修飾一個潛在的行事動詞如(8)中的state。論點(diǎn)派則認(rèn)為把because從句看作是修飾一個潛在動詞believe 或know更為合理。Because從句并不見得是修飾believe這個動詞本身,而是為說話人表示相信的事情提供了根據(jù)。說話人相信自己所說的話的真實性是“聲言”這一言語行為的必要條件之一,因此這種狀語從句的作用正說明了言語行為理論的可行性,卻并不說明行事假設(shè)的可行性。 13Syntactic ProblemsIn addition to semantic incoherencies and inadequacies , the PH required b

10、y Antithesis is assailed by syntactic problem.The following is a sample of the problems.14First, as Austin himself noted,there are many cases where explicit performatives do not refer to the speaker, ( as we all known, 顯性施為句的特點(diǎn)之一就是主語是說話人)for example: The company hereby undertakes to replace any can

11、of DoggoMeat that fails to please,with no question asked. It is herewith disclosed that the value of the estate left by Marcus T.Bloomingdale was 4,785,758 dollars.and other example where the addressee is not the target, (1)Johnny is to come in now. (2) Passengers are requested to cross the railway

12、line by the footbridge. (3) Pedestrians are warned to keep off the grass.15Second, many sentences seem to involve more than one illocutionary force.For example,(4) has a non-restrictive relative clause that is clearly assertoric in force despite being embedded within a question: (4)Does john, who co

13、uld never learn elementary calculus, really intend to do a PhD in mathematics?If every sentence has only one performative clause, it would seem to be necessary to derive (4) from an amalgamation合并 of two distinct derivations.Similar difficulties arise even with tag-questions like: (5)Wittgenstein wa

14、s an Oxford philosopher, wasnt he? Bob is really mischievous, isnt he?where the tag carries a question force that modifies the assertoric force of the declarative clause.16And even we have one unitary syntactic clause in surface structure, in order to capture the intuitive illocutionary force we may

15、 have to hypothesize a conjunction of two underlying performative clauses.Thus (6) has been analysed as having an underlying structure similar to (7) (6)Why dont you become an astronaut? (7) I ask you why you dont become an astronaut and I suggest that you do.But we also can paraphrase it like this:

16、 (8) I ask you why you dont become an astronaut, and if you can think of no good reasons why not, I suggest that you do.Yet clearly (8) is not syntactically related to (6).17Third, perhaps the most important syntactic objections to the PH (performative hypothesis: explicit performatives directly exp

17、ress their illocutionary forces) are the following. Firstly, it would require otherwise a typical and unmotivated rule of performative deletion in the majority of cases to deal with cases like(4)-(7). Secondly, the anaphoric phenomena seem to be pragmatically conditioned rather than syntactic condit

18、ioned. For example, Solar energy was invented by God and herself 18Even the facts about the adverbs that seem to modify implicit performatives, do not in fact support the PH .For performative adverbs unfortunately turn up in syntactic locations that are not easily reconciled with the claim that they

19、 modify the highest (performative) clause.Note, for example, the following possible locations for frankly: (9)Its because, frankly, I dont trust the Conservatives that I voted for Labour (10)I voted for Labour because, frankly, I dont trust the Conservatives.19There seems to be no independently requ

20、ired syntactic apparatus that can be held responsible for lowering these adverbs from their hypothetical location in the performative clause into the embedded clauses in which they in fact appear. In the case of (10), one might try to rescue the hypothesis by claiming that there are in fact two perf

21、ormative clauses and frankly modifies the second, as in (11) (11)I tell you that I voted for Labour because I tell you frankly. I dont the Conservatives.But that of course gets the semantics of the because-clause wrong: (11) asserts that Im telling you something else, which is not the meaning of (10

22、) at all.20Finally,as we shall see when we come to talk of indirect speech acts, the syntactic mechanisms that are required to handle those phenomena are powerful enough to entirely replicate the effects of the PH without actually having performative clauses.21上面所引述的,只是這場關(guān)于言語行為理論的歸屬問題的爭論中有關(guān)語義方面兩派的主要

23、論據(jù),仁者見仁,智者見智,只是論點(diǎn)派把話語意義分成兩個層次,用語用理論去解釋言語行為似乎更容易被接受,對立派的解釋有些牽強(qiáng)附會 。22Indirect Speech Acts間接言語行為的理論基礎(chǔ)間接言語行為的應(yīng)用對間接言語行為的三種解釋言語行為的種類語言的間接性與話語分析和間接語言有關(guān)的幾個問題23間接言語行為的理論基礎(chǔ)間接言語行為(Indirect Speech Acts)指的是說話者在話里表達(dá)一定意思的同時,又表達(dá)了另外的含義,也就是我們通常所說的“言外之意”和“隱含之意”。間接言語行為屬于語用學(xué)領(lǐng)域,是語用學(xué)研究的一個重要方面。在人們的日常交際過程中,經(jīng)常會有一些場合是不適合直抒己見的

24、,這是就需要間接言語行為,要求說話者巧妙的間接表達(dá)自己的意思,是聽話人能正確理解說話人的言外之意。24間接言語行為這一概念是由塞爾在1975年首次提出的,它的主要理論基礎(chǔ)是奧斯汀的言語行為理論。奧斯汀認(rèn)為語言的用途不應(yīng)該僅僅是通知或表述事情,語言經(jīng)常被用來“做事情”,語言交流的基本單位不是語句而是通過這一語句引起的言語行為。根據(jù)奧斯汀的分類,當(dāng)我們說一句話時,我們做出了三種言語行為:言中行為(locutionary act), 言外行為(illocutionary act)和言后行為(perlocutionary act)。例如:It is stuffy here 這句話的言中行為是說屋子很悶

25、,不通風(fēng)。顯而易見,說話人的言外行為是讓聽話的人去開門或開窗,而言后行為是聽話者去開窗或拒絕去開窗。從這個例子我們可以看出,言中行為就是字面意思,而言外行為才是說話人真正的交際意圖與目的所在。因此在這三種行為中,無論是奧斯汀還是塞爾,最能引起他們興趣的當(dāng)然是言外行為,也就是我們所說的間接言語行為。25間接言語行為的應(yīng)用1 表示禮貌 格賴斯指出,在交際中雙方都應(yīng)該遵守合作原則(cooperative principle),即在交際中為了使交際更加順利,雙方都應(yīng)盡量真實可靠地表達(dá)己見和提供信息。但在有些特殊場合下,人卻又以違反這一原則,讓我們看一下下面的例子: (一群朋友在談?wù)揝usan和Max,

26、他們是一對即將移居國外的夫婦) Ann: I will miss Suan and Max very much, wont you ,Steve? Steve: Well, I will miss Max.,從表面上看Steve違反了合作原則,他只回答了Ann問題的一部分,事實上他把他的意思表達(dá)地很清楚了。從他的話中Ann和其他人就可得到這樣的信息Steve不喜歡Susan,但為了禮貌,Steve沒有直接說明。這是十分符合我們說話習(xí)慣的。通常情況下人們不會直接表達(dá)自己對某人的厭惡或不喜歡。由此可見在交際中人們不僅遵守合作原則還要遵守禮貌原則。262 提出請求 在我們向別人提出請求時,簡單直接的

27、祈使句有時會使我們語氣聽起來過于生硬,別人不易接受。而通過間接言語行為發(fā)出的請求則會使語氣變得很委婉。一般情況我們通過以下兩種方式間接的提出請求:(1)化祈使為疑問 化祈使為疑問就是將祈使句變成疑問句。比如在要別人聽電話時,“Answer the phone”,這樣的句子會讓人感到被命令。如果將祈使句變成問句,“Could you answer the phone?”這樣的句式會讓人感覺很舒服。表面上是詢問,間接的表示了請求。27(2)使用預(yù)示語列結(jié)構(gòu)中的請求前語列 在交際中人們傾向于預(yù)示語列結(jié)構(gòu)中的請求前語列來間接的提出請求發(fā)出邀請。在以言行事之前,發(fā)話人先用某些話語進(jìn)行探測,看有無可能向?qū)?/p>

28、方實施某一言語行為。如: A: Hi, do you have uh size flashlight batteries? B: Yes, sir. A: I will have four please. B:( turn to get them)發(fā)話人使用請求前語列語的目的是想了解一下可否向?qū)Ψ教岢稣埱?。A首先B詢問是否有C號電池,得到肯定答復(fù)后,A才用陳述句提出要4節(jié)電池的要求。283 含蓄的表達(dá)拒絕 當(dāng)我們不贊同別人的行為時,或當(dāng)別人向我們提出請求我們不能應(yīng)允時,我們常需要向別人表示拒絕。在表示拒絕是要特別注意嚴(yán)于方式和語氣的選擇。因為拒絕非常令別人難堪,甚至?xí)θ穗H關(guān)系。因此我們要盡

29、可能的間接的表達(dá)拒絕。例如: Wife: Answer the phone please. Husband: I am watching TV Wife: I am washing my hair. 在這個簡單對話中,間接言語行為被發(fā)揮得淋漓盡致。妻子讓丈夫去接電話,丈夫說再看電視,間接的表示拒絕;妻子又說自己在洗頭,有很間接巧妙的拒絕了丈夫的請求。言外之意是自己不能去,還得丈夫去接電話。三句話中兩個隱含之意,使得對話十分巧妙生動,既不傷害感情,又達(dá)到了語言交際目的。29對間接言語行為的三種解釋Literal Force Theory (LFH)字面語勢假設(shè)Idiom theory 成語論/習(xí)

30、語論 Inference theory 推理論 30Literal Force Theory (LFH) 字面語勢假設(shè)the view that illocutionary force is built into sentence form. LFH will amount to subscribing to the following: (i) Explicit performatives have the force named by the performative verb in the matrix clause. (ii) Otherwise, the three major se

31、ntence-types in English, namely the imperative, interrogative and declarative, have the forces traditionally associated with them, namely ordering(or requiring), questioning and stating respectively(with, of course, the exception of explicit performatives which happen to be in declarative format).31

32、Antithesis theorists have to subscribe to LFH by virtue of their commitment to the PH (performative hypothesis), by that hypothesis explicit performatives directly express their illocutionary forces, and the three basic sentence-types will be reflexes of underlying performative verbs of ordering, qu

33、estioning and stating.Thesis theorists are also committed to LFH in so far as they think that they are engaged in a semantical exercise characterizing the meaning of the various IFIDs (illocutionary force indirectly devices), which clearly include explicit performatives and the main sentence-types.

34、32The problem of LFHThe basic problem that then arises is that most usages are indirect. The LFH theorist has to devise some way of deriving their request force from sentence forms that, according to rule (ii) above, are prototypically assertions and questions rather than requests (since they are no

35、t, with one exception, in imperative form). 33The diversity of actual usage thus constitutes a substantial challenge to LFH, the theory that there is a simple form: force correlation. On the face of it, what people do with sentence seems quite unrestricted by the surface form (i.e. sentence-type) of

36、 the sentences uttered. However, before we ask how Thesis and Antithesis theorists might respond to this challenge, we should first consider another but related problem that is posed by ISAs. This problem is that ISAs often have syntactic (or at least distributional) reflexes associated not only wit

37、h their surface sentence-type (and thus, on LFH, with their literal force), but also with their indirect or effective illocutionary force. 34Idiom theory 成語論/習(xí)語論習(xí)語論者認(rèn)為間接地用于行使某些功能的話語可以被看作是用于行使這些功能的習(xí)慣用法或語言形式,這些話語只能被視為整體,而不能對它們的結(jié)構(gòu)進(jìn)行分析。 Can you pass me the book? Would you please pass me the book? Would

38、you mind passing me the book? I request you to pass me the book. Please pass me the book.35習(xí)語論者認(rèn)為這些形式的句子都可以被看作是用于請求別人做某事的習(xí)語,也就是說Can you+V?/Would you please+V? /Would you mind+Ving? 在英語文化中都被約定俗成地看作是I request you+V的意義,就像習(xí)語kick the bucket具有die的意義一樣。習(xí)語論者試圖通過習(xí)慣用法在某些語言形式與它們間接地實施的功能之間建立起聯(lián)系,以次來解釋語言的間接用法。 36

39、習(xí)語論存在的漏洞和破綻1.在真實的言語交際中,人們對一些間接的語言用法的反應(yīng)并不是單一的,有的答話人的反應(yīng)是針對話語的字面意義的,有時他的反應(yīng)是針對話語的所謂習(xí)語意義的。例如: A: Can you get a ticket for me? B: Sure, I can. Which show do you want? 很顯然,在B的回答中,他先對A的話作了字 的反應(yīng):Sure, I can.然后他才把著同一句話作 A對他提出的請求來理解,他顯然接受了這 請求,因此,他才問Which show do you want? 37(1) A: Can you play the piano? B: S

40、ure. I started to learn when I was a kid. (2) A: Do you remember Old Peter? He kicked the bucket. B: Really? He was a nice guy. (* Really? Did he hurt his leg?) 顯然(1)中B沒有把A的話看作請求來理解。因此,可以看到把Can you+V?這種句子形式看作是一種習(xí)用的請求形式并不恰當(dāng),因為它明顯有別于(2)中kick the bucket這種名副其實的習(xí)語。對kick the bucket只存在一種理解和一種可能的反應(yīng),不會對它有字面上

41、的理解。382.形式和功能之間的關(guān)系的問題。習(xí)語論者試圖把一定的句子形式看作是表達(dá)某種意義的慣用形式,那就必定要在形式和意義之間建立起某種關(guān)聯(lián)。例如:Can you+V?/Would you please+V?/Would you mind+Ving?/May I ask you+V?在很多場合,人們確實使用這些形式提出要求,在相當(dāng)程度上我們可以說這些形式具有請求的意義 。39 Did you forget the door? I think its a bit drafty here. How about a bit less breeze? Okey, Johnny, what an I

42、going to say next? 在一定語境中都可以具有請求聽話人關(guān)門的功能,不能因為Did you forget the door?在一定情況下可以表示請求而概括出“ Did you forget+動作的對象?”都可以用于表示請求這樣的公式。實際上,說話人用這些句子間接的表示一個請求,又能被聽話人正確的理解為一個間接的請求,并不依靠對形式與意義之間的某種特定的關(guān)聯(lián),而是依靠對語境因素的考慮。 403.Whenever theres a grammatical reflex of indirct force, idiom theorists must claim an idiom.(Unf

43、ortunately this list seems to be of indefinite length) 41Inference theory 推理論推理論者認(rèn)為不應(yīng)把間接使用的話語看作是習(xí)語,而應(yīng)該假設(shè)聽話人經(jīng)過一系列的推理步驟才從句子的字面意義推導(dǎo)出說話人的真正意圖。不同的人對推理論作了不同的解釋,但他們的理論具有某些共同點(diǎn):421.間接的使用的話語具有獨(dú)立的字面意義,這種意義是交際參與者都能理解的。2.用于施行間接言語行為的話語必然具有促使聽話人去進(jìn)行推理的因素,也就是說這句話的字面意義使聽話人感到它在特定的語境中是不合適的,因而需要經(jīng)過推理來對它進(jìn)行必要的修補(bǔ),以獲得合適的意義。3

44、.從字面意義和語境推導(dǎo)出有關(guān)的間接意義必須有一定的原則和推理規(guī)則可循。43The first such inference theory was that proposed by Gordon and Lakoff. In that theory, property (1) was met by assuming the PH, while the trigger in (2) was provided whenever the literal force of an utterance was blocked by the context. For property (3), some sp

45、ecific inference rules were offered, convensational postulates, modelled on Carnaps meaning postulates(which state analytic equivalences not captures elsewhere in a semantical system, but with additional reference to contextual factors). Finally, to handle property (4), Gorden and Lakoff suggested t

46、he use of context-sensitive transderivational constraints. Transderivational constraints were rules already proposed within the theory of generative semantics that allowed onederivation to be governed by reference to another, and could thus be used to block, for example, certain structural ambiguiti

47、es. 44Another version of inference theory is suggested by Searle. 1.Searle從言語行為理論出發(fā),認(rèn)為交際雙方都必須具有言語行為理論知識,這樣他們才可能辨認(rèn)一句話語的字面意義,即字面上實施了什么行為,也就是他說的次要言語行為。2.Searle認(rèn)為可以通過Grice的會話合作原則(co-operation principle)來確定話語的不合適性,從而確定進(jìn)行推理的必要性。3.Searle認(rèn)為可以借助推導(dǎo)出會話含義(conversational implicature)的原則來達(dá)到這一目的。例如: A:Lets go to t

48、he movies tonight. B:I have to study for an exam. 根據(jù)意義,特別是Lets這個句首形式的運(yùn)用,可以確定A的話語是一個建議,對建議的反應(yīng)或是接受或是拒絕,但從字面上看B的回答似乎兩者都不是,B所說的看上去好像是一個和他本人有關(guān)的聲音,不過我們可以本能的意識到B的話是對A所提建議的拒絕。45 從一個字面上的聲音到一個實際的拒絕,Searle假設(shè)了A所經(jīng)歷的十個推理步驟: 第一步:我(指A,下同)向B提出了一個建議,他的反應(yīng)是說了些關(guān)于要準(zhǔn)備考試這樣的話.(第一步是對話語字面意義的理解)第二步:我推測B是愿意在會話中和我合作的,因此他所說的一定與話題

49、有關(guān)。(這是根據(jù)會話合作原則得出的結(jié)論)第三步:與建議有關(guān)的反應(yīng)不外乎接受、拒絕、反建議或進(jìn)一步討論等。(以言語行為理論為依據(jù))第四步:單他所說的話字面上不屬于上面所說的任何一種反應(yīng),因此不是一個切題的反應(yīng)。(從第一、第三兩個步驟得出的推理)第五步:因此,他所要說的恐怕不僅僅是他字面上所說的話。假定他的話與話題有關(guān),那么他的首要言外之的一定不同于他的字面上的言外之的。(從第二、第四兩步得出的推理這一步是關(guān)鍵的,A意識到了進(jìn)行推理對原話的字面意義進(jìn)行修補(bǔ)的必要性) 46第六步:我知道準(zhǔn)備考試要占用相對一個晚上來說比較多的時間,我也知道去看電影也要占用相對一個晚上來說比較多的時間。(根據(jù)常識)第七

50、步:因此,他恐怕不可能在同一個晚上既看電影又準(zhǔn)備考試。(從第六步推理而來)第八步:接受建議所必須滿足的準(zhǔn)備條件是具備履行命題內(nèi)容中所明確的行為的能力。(根據(jù)言語行為理論)第九步:因此,我認(rèn)為他所說的話應(yīng)該表明他不能接受我的建議。(從第一、七、八步得出的推理)第十步:因此,他的首要言外之的是拒絕建議。(從第五、九步得出的推理)推理論的優(yōu)點(diǎn):首先區(qū)分了話語的字面意義和話語的言外意義這兩個層次,然后假設(shè)了一系列的推理步驟從一個層次推導(dǎo)到另一個層次。這樣,推理論擺脫了最為棘手的形式和功能的關(guān)聯(lián)問題。不論一句話語是以什么樣的句子形式出現(xiàn),依賴一系列語境因素、語用知識和聽話人的推理能力,我們總能夠合情合理

51、地推導(dǎo)出它在特定的語境中所具有的言外之意。 47言語行為的種類Searle的間接言語行為基于以下假設(shè): 1.顯性施為句或明顯的以言行事可通過施為動詞獲知說話人的語用用意; 2.許多語句實際上都是隱性施為句,其中陳述句表達(dá)“陳述”,疑問句表達(dá)“詢問”,祈使句表達(dá)“命令”等言語行為; 3.語句本身表達(dá)的這些言語行為稱作“字面用意”,它與間接的“言外之力”(語用用意)相對,后者是在“字面用意”的基礎(chǔ)上做出的推斷; 4.間接言語行為可以分為規(guī)約性間接言語行為和非規(guī)約性間接言語行為。 48間接言語行為理論要解決的問題是,說話人如何通過“字面用意”來表達(dá)間接的“言外之力”,即語用用意,或者說聽話人如何從說

52、話人的“字面用意”中推斷出其間接的“言外之力”,即語用用意。為此,Searle認(rèn)為理解或傳達(dá)間接言語行為有四條依據(jù): 1.言語行為理論,特別是“示言外之力”論,即了解人們?nèi)绾我匝孕惺拢?2.語用含意理論,特別是了解“會話含意”理論中有關(guān)合作原則的各準(zhǔn)則的恪守和違反可能帶來的語用含意; 3.說話人的知識和聽話人所理解的語境信息; 4.聽話人的知識及推理能力 49規(guī)約性間接言語行為所謂規(guī)約性間接言語行為,指對“字面用意”作一般性推理而得出的間接言語行為。所謂對字面用意作一般推斷,實際上就是根據(jù)話語的句法形式,按習(xí)慣可立即推斷出間接的“言外之力”(語用用意)。規(guī)約性間接言語行為的應(yīng)用,主要處于對聽話

53、人的禮貌。例如: Could you be a little more quiet? Id rather you didnt do it any more. Would you mind not making so much noise? I would appreciate it if you could turn off the light. 50這些話語的字面用意分別是詢問和陳述,但人們按習(xí)慣可以根據(jù)這些話語的形式,立即推斷出各句間接的言外之力都是“請求”,因為這些語句大體上都可以在動詞前或句末插入一個禮貌標(biāo)記語please。例如,Could you please be a little

54、 more quiet?/Id rather you didnt do it any more, please. 要注意的是,當(dāng)以上話語加上please之后,盡管它們的形式?jīng)]有改變,但它們已不再是表達(dá)間接言語行為的語句了,而是通過please明確表達(dá)了“請求”,相當(dāng)于一個祈使句式。 51表達(dá)間接言語行為的話語,人們習(xí)慣上是不會根據(jù)字面用意進(jìn)行理解的,但是在一定語境里,這類話語可能只表達(dá)字面用意,而不作為間接言語行為。例如,在游泳池旁問一句Can you swim?很可能是一個間接言語行為,表達(dá)請求或邀請;但如果該話語是在家里提出來的,顯然它只可能表達(dá)字面用意了,即詢問對方是否會游泳。 A: C

55、an you close the window? B: No, sorry, I cant. Ive turned in. A顯然是請求B關(guān)窗戶,但B卻因為自己已經(jīng)上床睡覺,而不得不按A的字面用意進(jìn)行回答,說他“沒有能力”做此事。并非B不明A的間接言外之意,而是不能滿足對方的請求罷了。 52Searle把表示規(guī)約性間接請求或指令的語句分成了以下六類:1.與說話人做某事的能力有關(guān)的語句。 Can you reach the salt? Could you be a little more quiet? Are you able to reach the book on the top shelf

56、? 2.與說話人希望聽話人做某事的愿望有關(guān)的語句。 I would like you to go now. I want you to do this for me. I would/should appreciate it if you would/could do it for me? 3.與聽話人做某事有關(guān)的語句。 Officers will henceforth wear ties at dinner. Will you quit making that awful racket? Wont you stop making that noise soon?534.與聽話人做某事的愿望或

57、意愿有關(guān)的語句。 Do you want to hand me that hammer over there on the table? Would you be willing to write a letter of recommendation for me? Would it be convenient for you to come on Wednesday? 5.與做某事的原因有關(guān)的語句。 You ought to be more polite to your mother. Must you continue hammering that way? Ought you to ea

58、t quite so much spaghetti? 還包括很多不具有一般形式的語句,但只要在一定語境條件下它們可以是間接言語行為,比如以下間接性請求: Youre standing on my foot. I cant see the movie screen while you have that hat on. 6.將以上結(jié)構(gòu)放入另一種結(jié)構(gòu),或者將明示的以言行事指令動詞放入上 述另一種結(jié)構(gòu)。 Would you mind awfully if I asked you if you could write me a letter of recommendation? Might I ask

59、 you to take off your hat? 以上只是一個大致的分類,在一定條件下某些結(jié)構(gòu)可以相互組合,形成間接性請求或指令言語行為。 54Searle對間接指令的分類主要參考的是實施言外行為的恰當(dāng)條件(準(zhǔn)備條件、誠意條件、命題內(nèi)容條件、根本條件)。其實對實施間接指令的各種方式,我們也可以從“指令”這一行為所涉及的幾個因素出發(fā)去考慮:說話人(發(fā)出指令者)、聽話人(指令對象)和說話人想要聽話人去做的動作。據(jù)次,在餐桌上請別人遞一下鹽瓶,可以有以下各種間接的形式。 以說話人為出發(fā)點(diǎn): a)陳述愿望 I would like you to pass me the salt. b)詢問愿望 *

60、 Would I like you to pass me the salt?聽話人為出發(fā)點(diǎn): 1a)陳述能力 You can pass me the salt. 1b)詢問能力 Can you pass me the salt? 2a)陳述意愿 You want to pass me the salt. 2b)詢問意愿 Would you mind passing me the salt? 3a)陳述將來的動作 You will pass me the salt. 3b)詢問將來的動作 Will you pass me the salt?以動作為出發(fā)點(diǎn): a)陳述理由 The soup is

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