經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)思維方式：CompetitionandGovernmentPolicy課件

1、經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)思維方式：CompetitionandGovernmentPolicy課件經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)思維方式：CompetitionandGovernmeChapter OutlineCompetition as a Process The Pressures of CompetitionControlling CompetitionRestrictions on CompetitionCompetition on Other FrontsCompetition for the Key ResourceCompetition and Property Rights The Ambivalence（矛盾） o

2、f Government Policies2Chapter OutlineCompetition as Chapter OutlineSelling Below CostWhat is the Appropriate Cost?“Predators” and CompetitionRegulating Prices“Antitrust” PolicyInterpretations and ApplicationsVertical Restraints: Competitive or AnticompetitiveThe Range of OpinionToward Evaluation3Cha

3、pter OutlineSelling Below CIntroductionQuestionsWill economic competition disappear unless the government has an active program to preserve it?When the government prohibits mergers, is it preventing competitors from eliminating rivals?When sellers face so little competition that they can charge pric

4、es far above cost, can government protect consumers from exploitation by regulating prices?How is competition measured in an industry?4IntroductionQuestions6Introduction學(xué)習(xí)完本章之后，你對(duì)這些問題應(yīng)該有更好的認(rèn)識(shí)5Introduction學(xué)習(xí)完本章之后，你對(duì)這些問題應(yīng)該有更Competition as a Process在日常語言中，“競爭”更多地指的是人們參與的活動(dòng)。而在主流經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)中，“競爭”的概念卻意指事物的狀態(tài)（stat

5、e of affairs）。6Competition as a Process在日常語言中Competition as a ProcessA （perfectly）competitive market（完全競爭市場） is said to exist whenThere are a large number of buyers and sellers, and nobody possesses market powerMarket participants possess full and complete information of alternativesSellers produce

6、a homogeneous（同質(zhì)的） productThere is costless mobility of resourcesThe economic actors are price takers7Competition as a ProcessA （perCompetition as a Process完全競爭會(huì)導(dǎo)致一個(gè)假想的資源最優(yōu)配置和零利潤。然而，這種模型的運(yùn)用對(duì)于理解經(jīng)濟(jì)問題來說有著嚴(yán)重的局限性！8Competition as a Process完全競爭會(huì)導(dǎo)Competition as a Process完全競爭模型的局限性模糊了經(jīng)濟(jì)系統(tǒng)背后的制度架構(gòu)；忽略了市場上交換行為的動(dòng)

7、態(tài)性和多面性；忽略了企業(yè)家調(diào)整過程，這是強(qiáng)進(jìn)的市場經(jīng)濟(jì)的核心，是市場經(jīng)濟(jì)活力的源泉。9Competition as a Process完全競爭模型Competition as a Process完全競爭模型關(guān)注的是事物的狀態(tài)，是所有調(diào)整活動(dòng)發(fā)生后的狀態(tài)；其中，所有人的計(jì)劃處于先天的協(xié)調(diào)狀態(tài)；而沒有解釋經(jīng)濟(jì)主體是如何通過交換和生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)實(shí)現(xiàn)收益的（如果追蹤至其邏輯極限，則又會(huì)窮盡所有潛在收益）。斯密談?wù)摰氖鞘袌錾系挠憙r(jià)還價(jià)，而完全競爭模型關(guān)心的卻是消除進(jìn)一步討價(jià)還價(jià)可能性的條件。這是一個(gè)嚴(yán)重的智識(shí)錯(cuò)誤！10Competition as a Process完全競爭模型The Pressures of

8、 CompetitionPrice Marginal CostSellers facing downward sloping demand curvesInvites CompetitionExamplePiece of pie costs 50 cents to produceSeller sells the pie for $1.5011The Pressures of CompetitionPrThe Pressures of CompetitionPQDTemptation!.50Marginal cost$1.50Price12The Pressures of Competition

9、PQThe Pressures of CompetitionPQDemand curveas sellerperceives itD13The Pressures of CompetitionPQThe Pressures of Competition現(xiàn)實(shí)中，銷售者如何獲取對(duì)其產(chǎn)品的需求信息？經(jīng)常調(diào)查；通過做廣告和提供可靠的服務(wù)來努力刺激和維持這種需求；如果有幾個(gè)銷售者銷售同一產(chǎn)品，每個(gè)銷售者的需求曲線將取決于這些相互競爭的銷售者采取的政策。 前面章節(jié)明確定義的需求曲線變得模糊了！14The Pressures of Competition現(xiàn)實(shí)Controlling CompetitionWh

10、y dont sellers agree not to compete? Answer: High transaction costs！Collusion is illegalDifficult to devise agreementCollusion may attract other firms15Controlling CompetitionWhy donControlling CompetitionWhat about Cartels?Cartels are fragileTo be successful for its membersMust prevent competition

11、among membersStop new competitors from entering the market16Controlling CompetitionWhat abControlling CompetitionIn reality, special-interest groups seek to legally restrict entry各種借口五花八門通過這些方式，他們是否真能獲得“有保證的利潤”（guaranteed profit）呢？17Controlling CompetitionIn realCompetition on Other FrontsThe exampl

12、e of mousetrap patent（捕鼠器專利） QuestionA guaranteed profit?Are there costs associated with patent ownership?Does someones offer to buy your patent affect your costs?18Competition on Other FrontsTheCompetition on Other FrontsAnswer:It is the value of your foregone opportunity by not sellingQuestionHow

13、is the price of a “better” mousetrap patent determined?19Competition on Other FrontsAnsCompetition on Other FrontsIf the interest earned from investing the proceeds from the sale of the mousetrap patent exceeds the profit you expect to earn if you keep it, it is a profitable investment. 20Competitio

14、n on Other FrontsIf Competition on Other FrontsWhen uncertainty disappears:Profits are transformed into costs of production by competitive biddingIt is the value of your foregone opportunity by not selling21Competition on Other FrontsWheCompetition for the Key ResourceQuestionDo price supports have

15、any effect on the price of land?QuestionsDo licenses affect costs?Who gains from a new licensing system?ExamplesTaxicabs22Competition for the Key ResourCompetition and Property RightsUnder certainty, competition will eliminate profit.QuestionsWill the pursuit of profit lead to:Better mousetraps or t

16、he attempt to prevent others from selling?Increasing production of wheat or higher-priced land?Better taxi service or higher priced licenses?23Competition and Property RightCompetition and Property RightsAnswerDepends upon the rules of the game and the property rights created.24Competition and Prope

17、rty RightThe Ambivalence of Government PoliciesQuestionShould the government be relied on to preserve competition in the economy?AnswerConcern for competition is not the same as concern for competitors.25The Ambivalence of Government The Ambivalence of Government PoliciesA law that restricts competi

18、torsrestricts competition.Common justification for suchlaws is that they preserve competition by preventing“predatory” practices.26The Ambivalence of Government Selling Below CostShould there be laws that prevent firms from selling below cost?Many states have such laws.Why would some business firms

19、be in favor of such a law?They want to get protection from competition!27Selling Below CostShould thereSelling Below CostPublic viewPrice cutting may lead to monopoliesQuestionIs this bad?28Selling Below CostPublic view3What is Appropriate Cost?ProblemHow to determine the cost below which prices can

20、not be set.QuestionOnce an item is bought, isnt it a sunk cost?QuestionWhat should a firm do if they cannot sell their product before it spoils?29What is Appropriate Cost?ProblWhat is the Appropriate Cost?Marginal costs should be consideredBusiness people are concerned with:Additional revenues resul

21、ting from a decisionAdditional costs from the same decision30What is the Appropriate Cost?MWhat is the Appropriate Cost?Joint products and joint costsQuestionWhen would a grocer want to sell a newspaper below the wholesale cost?31What is the Appropriate Cost?J“Predators”（掠奪性定價(jià)者） and CompetitionProte

22、cting competitors is not the same as preserving competition. In reality, they are more likely opposites!Predatory PricingReducing prices below cost in order to drive out rivalsIntend to raise prices afterward to recoup losses32“Predators”（掠奪性定價(jià)者） and Compet“Predators” and Competition經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)理論不排斥掠奪性定價(jià)的可能

23、性，但是它確實(shí)帶來一長串疑問:How long will it take for such a policy to work?The longer it takes the larger the short term lossesIs it likely that the predatory firm will be able to destroy enough of its rivals to secure the degree of market power it must have to earn enough long run profits to justify short term

24、 losses?What will happen to the physical assets and human assets of the firms forced out of business?33“Predators” and Competition經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)“Predators” and Competition為了消除（未來）更高價(jià)格的可能性，最低價(jià)格立法使得更高的價(jià)格成為確定的事實(shí)。接受一個(gè)已知確定的惡魔，以此避免未知不確定的惡魔！34“Predators” and Competition為了消Regulating Prices（管制價(jià)格）Prices should be set t

25、o enable firms to earn a reasonable profit.How will regulators determine the costs of running the enterprise?Incentive problems:Innovation?Cost control?35Regulating Prices（管制價(jià)格）Prices Regulating PricesQuestionWho will regulate the regulators?Capture Theory（俘獲理論）Regulators tend to acquire an interest

26、 over time in the well-being of the industries for which they are responsible.36Regulating PricesQuestion38Regulating PricesExamplesBankingAirlinesTelephone37Regulating PricesExamples39Regulating PricesStandard argument for government regulation of prices:Competition cannot regulate in certain cases

27、Consumers will be at the mercy of greedy sellersThese arguments often kept us from asking:Is competition unable to constrain the behaviors of the firms in the regulated industry?We take it for granted that38Regulating PricesStandard arguRegulating PricesThe movement towards deregulation of the past

28、two decades has not settled all the issues.But history showed us that:There are more margins on which competition can occurCompetition has some advantages over commissions39Regulating PricesThe movement “Antitrust” Policy（反托拉斯政策）政府有時(shí)會(huì)采取一些旨在促進(jìn)競爭的政策，常用理由：競爭是經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)的有效協(xié)調(diào)機(jī)制，但是要保持充分的競爭，需要政府進(jìn)行某些維護(hù)。 In US, fo

29、r example, Laws have been passed to promote competitionFederalStateLocal40“Antitrust” Policy（反托拉斯政策）政府有時(shí)“Antitrust” PolicySherman Antitrust Act（謝爾曼反托拉斯法） 1890 Forbids all contracts, combinations or conspiracies in restraint of interstate trade and all attempts to monopolize any part of interstate tr

30、ade.“Trust”: 19世紀(jì)的商人用法律托管（legal trusteeship）的方式防止競爭行為。該法案太籠統(tǒng)。必須是“不合理”，或?qū)哺＠斐闪酥卮笸{。41“Antitrust” PolicySherman Anti“Antitrust” PolicyInterpretations and ApplicationsClayton Act（克萊頓法） 1914 Mergers that “substantially” lessen competition were made illegal.Federal Trade Commission Act（聯(lián)邦貿(mào)易委員會(huì)法）Created

31、 Federal Trade CommissionProhibited “unfair” practices42“Antitrust” PolicyInterpretaQuestionWhen does a merger（兼并） substantially lessen competition?HorizontalConglomerate（混合）VerticalQuestionWhat is an illegal trade practice?“Antitrust” PolicyInterpretations and Applications43Question“Antitrust” Poli

32、cyInSummaryRestriction on competitors will restrict their ability to compete.競爭從本質(zhì)上來說是提供更多的機(jī)會(huì)，更多的機(jī)會(huì)意味著選擇的范圍更大，因而意味著更多的財(cái)富。 “Antitrust” PolicyInterpretations and Applications44Summary“Antitrust” PolicyInt但是，企業(yè)為擴(kuò)展其提供的機(jī)會(huì)所采用的方式，經(jīng)過或長或短一段時(shí)間，可能會(huì)縮減其他企業(yè)所能提供的機(jī)會(huì)。在什么情況下，我們才希望政府為了維持更大范圍或長期的競爭局勢(shì)而限制一家企業(yè)的競爭努力呢？ “Ant

33、itrust” PolicyInterpretations and Applications45“Antitrust” PolicyInterpreta記住下面這一點(diǎn)非常重要：對(duì)政府政策最有效地施加壓力的并非消費(fèi)者，而是生產(chǎn)者的利益。這些政策的制定通常是源于生產(chǎn)者想讓自己免受競爭之苦的強(qiáng)烈愿望。 “Antitrust” PolicyInterpretations and Applications46記住下面這一點(diǎn)非常重要：“Antitrust” Policy“Antitrust” PolicyVertical Restraints: Competitive or Anticompetitive

34、Vertical restraints have been controversial(1937 1976) Federal legislation exempted state-endorsed price-fixing agreements between manufacturers and retailers.47“Antitrust” PolicyVertical RQuestionsWhy would a manufacturer want retailers to charge more and sell less?Why would a manufacturer want few

35、er retailers selling its products?“Antitrust” PolicyVertical Restraints: Competitive or Anticompetitive48Questions“Antitrust” PolicyV“Antitrust” Policy The Range of Opinion（不同意見）QuestionIs the whole body of “antitrust” law perhaps more of a hindrance（阻礙） than a help to competition?49“Antitrust” Poli

36、cy The RangeOpinionRetain the Sherman Act and the anti-merger provision of the Clayton Act onlyThe Sherman and Clayton Acts, in their entirety, have made important contributions.They would be improved if they were more seriously enforced.They are harmless rhetoric（言辭）“Antitrust” Policy The Range of

37、Opinion50Opinion“Antitrust” Policy Th“反托拉斯”政策必然充滿矛盾有關(guān)法律很少促進(jìn)了競爭，它們更多的是增進(jìn)了競爭者的保護(hù)者的利益，而非競爭的保護(hù)者的利益。那些無法通過向顧客提供價(jià)廉物美的商品進(jìn)行有效競爭的企業(yè)有時(shí)根據(jù)反托拉斯法提出控訴，其真實(shí)目的在于能夠說服法院提高價(jià)格或者降低競爭對(duì)手所提供商品的質(zhì)量?？赡茏璧K了那些西歐和日本很常見的卡特爾協(xié)議的發(fā)展?！癆ntitrust” Policy The Range of Opinion51“反托拉斯”政策必然充滿矛盾“Antitrust” PoliToward Evaluation（評(píng)論）Restrictions on potential