拉斯韋爾《社會傳播的結構與功能》

1、拉斯韋爾社會流傳的構造與功能拉斯韋爾社會流傳的構造與功能24/24拉斯韋爾社會流傳的構造與功能HaroldTheactofcommunicationConvenientwaytodescribeanactofcommunicationistoanswerthefollowingquestions:WhoSaysWhatInWhichChannelToWhomWithWhatEffectThescientificstudyoftheprocessofcommunicationtendstoconcentrateupononeoranotherofthesequestions.Scholarswh

2、ostudythewho,thecommunicator,lookintothefactorsthatinitiateandguidetheactofcommunication.Wecallthissubdivisionofthefieldofresearchcontrolanalysis.Specialistswhofocusuponthesayswhatengageincontentanalysis.Thosewholookprimarilyattheradio,press,film,andotherchannelsofcommunicationaredoingmediaanalysis(

3、p.84).Whentheprincipalconcerniswiththepersonsreachedbythemedia,wespeakofaudienceanalysis.Ifthequestionistheimpactuponaudiences,theproblemiseffectanalysis.Whethersuchdistinctionsareusefuldependsentirelyuponthedegreeofrefinementwhichisregardedasappropriatetoagivenscientificandmanagerialobjective.Often

4、itissimplertocombineaudienceandeffectanalysis,forinstance,thantokeepthemapart.Ontheotherhand,wemaywanttoconcentrateontheanalysisofcontent,andforthispurposesubdividethefieldintothestudyofpurportandstyle,thefirstreferringtothemessage,andthesecondtothearrangementoftheelementsofwhichthemessageiscomposed

5、.StructureandfunctionEnticingasitistoworkoutthesecategoriesinmoredetail,thepresentdiscussionhasadifferentscope.Wearelessinterestedindividinguptheactofcommunicationthaninviewingtheactasawholeinrelationtotheentiresocialprocess.Anyprocesscanbeexaminedintwoframesofreference,namely,structureandfunction;a

6、ndouranalysisofcommunicationwilldealwiththespecializationsthatcarryoncertainfunctions,ofwhichthefollowingmaybeclearlydistinguished:(i)thesurveillanceoftheenvironment;(2)thecorrelationofthepartsofsocietyinrespondingtotheenvironment;(3)thetransmissionofthesocialheritagefromonegenerationtothenext.Biolo

7、gicalequivalencesAttheriskofcallingupfalseanalogies,wecangainperspectiveonhumansocietieswhenwenotethedegreetowhichcommunicationisafeatureoflifeateverylevel.Avitalentity,whetherrelativelyisolatedorinassociation,hasspecializedwaysofreceivingstimulifromtheenvironment.Thesingle-celledorganismorthemany-m

8、emberedgrouptendstomaintainaninternalequilibriumandtorespondtochangesintheenvironmentinawaythatmaintainsthisequilibrium.Therespondingprocesscallsforspecializedwaysofbringingthepartsofthewholeintoharmoniousaction(p.85).Multi-celledanimalsspecializecellstothefunctionofexternalcontactandinternalcorrela

9、tion.Thus,amongtheprimates,specializationisexemplifiedbyorganssuchastheearandeye,andthenervoussystemitself.Whenthestimulireceivinganddisseminatingpatternsoperatesmoothly,theseveralpartsoftheanimalactinconcertinreferencetotheenvironment(feeding,fleeing,attacking).Insomeanimalsocietiescertainmemberspe

10、rformspecializedroles,andsurveytheenvironment.Individualsactassentinels,standingapartfromtheherdorflockandcreatingadisturbancewheneveranalarmingchangeoccursinthesurroundings.Thetrumpeting,cackling,orshrillingofthesentinelisenoughtosettheherdinmotion.Amongtheactivitiesengagedinbyspecializedleadersist

11、heinternalstimulationoffollowerstoadaptinanorderlymannertothecircumstancesheraldedbythesentinels.Withinasingle,highlydifferentiatedorganism,incomingnervousimpulsesandoutgoingimpulsesaretransmittedalongfibersthatmakesynapticjunctionwithotherfibers.Thecriticalpointsintheprocessoccurattherelaystations,

12、wherethearrivingimpulsemaybetooweaktoreachthethresholdwhichstirsthenextlinkintoaction.Atthehighercenters,separatecurrentsmodifyoneanother,producingresultsthatdifferinmanywaysfromtheoutcomewheneachisallowedtocontinueaseparateslyfoxmayapproachthebarnyardinawaythatsuppliestoomeagerstimuliforthesentinel

13、tosoundthealarm.Ortheattackinganimalmayeliminatethesentinelbeforehemakesmorethanafeebleoutcry.Obviouslythereiseverygradationpossiblebetweentotalconductanceandnoconductance(p.86).AttentioninWorldSocietyattentionframes,Whenweexaminetheprocessofcommunicationofanystateintheworldcommunity,wenotethreecate

14、goriesofspecialists.Onegroupsurveysthepoliticalenvironmentofthestateasawhole,anothercorrelatestheresponseofthewholestatetotheenvironment,andthethirdtransmitscertainpatternsofresponsefromtheoldtotheyoung.Diplomats,attaches,andforeigncorrespondentsarerepresentativeofthosewhospecializeontheenvironment.

15、Editors,journalists,andspeakersarecorrelatorsoftheinternalresponse.Educatorsinfamilyandschooltransmitthesocialinheritance.Communicationswhichoriginateabroadpassthroughsequencesinwhichvarioussendersandreceiversarelinkedwithoneanother.Subjecttomodificationateachrelaypointinthechain,messagesoriginating

16、withadiplomatorforeigncorrespondentmaypassthrougheditorialdesksandeventuallyreachlargeaudiences.Ifwethinkoftheworldattentionprocessasaseriesofitispossibletodescribetherateatwhichcomparablecontentisbroughttothenoticeofindividualsandgroups.Wecaninquireintothepointatwhichconductancenolongeroccurs;andwe

17、canlookintotherangebetweentotalconductanceandminimumconductance.Themetropolitanandpoliticalcentersoftheworldhavemuchincommonwiththeinterdependence,differentiation,andactivityofthecorticalorsubcorticalcentersofanindividualorganism.Hencetheattentionframesfoundinthesespotsarethemostvariable,refined,and

18、interactiveofallframesintheworldcommunity.Attheotherextremearetheattentionframesofprimitiveinhabitantsofisolatedareas.Notthatfolkculturesarewhollyuntouchedbyindustrialcivilization.WhetherweparachuteintotheinteriorofNewGuinea,orlandontheslopesoftheHimalayas,wefindnotribewhollyoutofcontactwiththeworld

19、.Thelongthreadsoftrade,ofmissionaryzeal,ofadventurousexplorationandscientificfieldstudy,andofglobalwarreachfardistantplaces.Nooneisentirelyoutofthisworld(p.87).Amongprimitivesthefinalshapetakenbycommunicationistheballadortale.Remotehappeningsinthegreatworldofaffairs,happeningsthatcometothenoticeofme

20、tropolitanaudiences,arereflected,howeverdimly,inthethematicmaterialofballadsingersandreciters.Inthesecreationsfarawaypoliticalleadersmaybeshownsupplyinglandtothepeasantsorrestoringanabundanceofgametothehills.Whenwepushupstreamoftheflowofcommunication,wenotethattheimmediaterelayfunctionfornomadicandr

21、emotetribesmenissometimesperformedbytheinhabitantsofsettledvillageswithwhomtheycomeinoccasionalcontact.There-layercanbetheschoolteacher,doctor,judge,taxcollector,policeman,soldier,peddler,salesman,missionary,student;inanycaseheisanassemblypointofnewsandcomment.MoredetailedequivalencesThecommunicatio

22、nprocessesofhumansociety,whenexaminedindetail,revealmanyequivalencestothespecializationsfoundinthephysicalorganismandintheloweranimalsocieties.Thediplomats,forinstance,ofasinglestatearestationedallovertheworldandsendmessagestoafewfocalpoints.Obviously,theseincomingreportsmovefromthemanytothefew,wher

23、etheyinteractupononeanother.Lateron,thesequencespreadsfanwiseaccordingtoafew-to-manypattern,aswhenaforeignsecretarygivesaspeechinpublic,anarticleisputoutinthepress,oranewsfilmisdistributedtothetheaters.Thelinesleadingfromtheouterenvironmentofthestatearefunctionallyequivalenttotheafferentchannelsthat

24、conveyincomingnervousimpulsestothecentralnervoussystemofasingleanimal,andtothemeansbywhichalarmisspreadamongaflock.Outgoing,orefferent,impulsesdisplaycorrespondingparallels.Thecentralnervoussystemofthebodyisonlypartlyinvolvedintheentireflowofafferent-efferentimpulses.Thereareautomaticsystemsthatcana

25、ctononeanotherwithoutinvolvingthehighercentersatall(p.88).Thestabilityoftheinternalenvironmentismaintainedprincipallythroughthemediationofthevegetiveorautonomicspecializationsofthenervoussystem.Similarly,mostofthemessageswithinanystatedonotinvolvethecentralchannelsofcommunication.Theytakeplacewithin

26、families,neighborhoods,shops,fieldgangs,andotherlocalcontexts.Mostoftheeducationalprocessiscarriedonthesameway.Afurthersetofsignificantequivalencesisrelatedtothecircuitsofcommunication,whicharepredominantlyone-wayortwo-way,dependinguponthedegreeofreciprocitybetweencommunicatorsandaudience.Or,toexpre

27、ssitdifferently,two-waycommunicationoccurswhenthesendingandreceivingfunctionsareperformedwithequalfrequencybytwoormorepersons.Aconversationisusuallyassumedtobeapatternoftwo-waycommunication(althoughmonologuesarehardlyunknown).Themoderninstrumentsofmasscommunicationgiveanenormousadvantagetothecontrol

28、lersofprintingplants,broadcastingequipment,andotherformsoffixedandspecializedcapital.Butitshouldbenotedthataudiencesdotalkback,aftersomedelay;andmanycontrollersofmassmediausescientificmethodsofsamplinginordertoexpeditethisclosingofthecircuit.Circuitsoftwo-waycontactareparticularlyinevidenceamongtheg

29、reatmetropolitan,political,andculturalcentersoftheworld.NewYork,Moscow,London,andParis,forexample,areinintensetwo-waycontact,evenwhentheflowisseverelycurtailedinvolume(asbetweenMoscowandNewYork).Eveninsignificantsitesbecomeworldcenterswhentheyaretransformedintocapitalcities(Canberra,Australia;Ankara

30、,Turkey;theDistrictofColumbia,AculturalcenterlikeVaticanCityisinintensetwo-wayrelationshipwiththedominantcentersthroughouttheworld.EvenspecializedproductioncenterslikeHollywood,despitetheirpreponderanceofoutgoingmaterial,receiveanenormousvolumeofmessages.Afurtherdistinctioncanbemadebetweenmessagecon

31、trollingandmessagehandlingcentersandsocialformations.The(p.89)messagecenterinthevastPentagonBuildingoftheWarDepartmentinWashingtontransmitswithnomorethanaccidentalchangeincomingmessagestoaddressees.Thisistheroleoftheprintersanddistributorsofbooks;ofdispatchers,linemen,andmessengersconnectedwithteleg

32、raphiccommunication;ofradioengineersandothertechniciansassociatedwithbroadcasting.Suchmessagehandlersmaybecontrastedwiththosewhoaffectthecontentofwhatissaid,whichisthecommunicationofeditors,censors,andpropagandists.Speakingofthesymbolspecialistsasawhole,therefore,weseparatethemintothemanipulators(co

33、ntrollers)andthehandlers;thefirstgrouptypicallymodifiescontent,whiletheseconddoesnot.NeedsandvaluesThoughwehavenotedanumberoffunctionalandstructuralequivalencesbetweencommunicationinhumansocietiesandotherlivingentities,itisnotimpliedthatwecanmostfruitfullyinvestigatetheprocessofcommunicationinAmeric

34、aortheworldbythemethodsmostappropriatetoresearchontheloweranimalsoronsinglephysicalorganisms.Incomparativepsychologywhenwedescribesomepartofthesurroundingsofarat,cat,ormonkeyasastimulus(thatis,aspartoftheenvironmentreachingtheattentionoftheanimal),wecannotasktherat;weuseothermeansofinferringpercepti

35、on.Whenhumanbeingsareourobjectsofinvestigation,wecaninterviewthegreattalkinganimal.(Thisisnotthatwetakeeverythingatfacevalue.Sometimesweforecasttheoppositeofwhatthepersonsaysheintendstodo.Inthiscase,wedependonotherindications,bothverbalandnonverbal.)Inthestudyoflivingforms,itisrewarding,aswehavesaid

36、,tolookatthemasmodifiersoftheenvironmentintheprocessofgratifyingneeds,andhenceofmaintainingasteadystateofinternalequilibrium.Food,sex,andotheractivitieswhichinvolvetheenvironmentcanbeexaminedonacomparativebasis.Sincehumanbeingsexhibitspeechreactions,wecaninvestigatemanymorerelationshipsthaninthenonh

37、umanspecies(p.90).Allowingforthedatafurnishedbyspeech(andothercommunicativeacts),wecaninvestigatehumansocietyintermsofvalues;thatis,inreferencetocategoriesofrelationshipsthatarerecognizedobjectsofgratification.InAmerica,forexample,itrequiresnoelaboratetechniqueofstudytodiscernthatpowerandrespectarev

38、alues.Wecandemonstratethisbylisteningtotestimony,andbywatchingwhatisdonewhenopportunityisafforded.Itispossibletoestablishalistofvaluescurrentinanygroupchosenforinvestigation.Furtherthanthis,wecandiscovertherankorderinwhichthesevaluesaresought.Wecanrankthemembersofthegroupaccordingtotheirpositionsinr

39、elationtothevalues.Sofarasindustrialcivilizationisconcerned,wehavenohesitationinsayingthatpower,wealth,respect,wellbeing,andenlightenmentareamongthevalues.Ifwestopwiththislist,whichisnotexhaustive,wecandescribeonthebasisofavailableknowledge(fragmentarythoughitmayoftenbe)thesocialstructureofmostofthe

40、world.Sincevaluesarenotequallydistributed,thesocialstructurerevealsmoreorlessconcentrationofrelativelyabundantsharesofpower,wealth,andothervaluesinafewhands.Insomeplacesthisconcentrationispassedonfromgenerationtogeneration,formingcastesratherthanamobilesociety.Ineverysocietythevaluesareshapedanddist

41、ributedaccordingtomoreorlessdistinctivepatterns(institutions).Theinstitutionsincludecommunicationswhichareinvokedinsupportofthenetworkasawhole.Suchcommunicationsaretheideology;andinrelationtopowerwecandifferentiatethepoliticaldoctrine,thepoliticalformula,andthemiranda.TheseareillustratedintheUnitedS

42、tatesbythedoctrineofindividualism,theparagraphsoftheConstitution,whicharetheformula,andtheceremoniesandlegendsofpubliclife,whichcomprisetheMiranda(p.91).Theideologyiscommunicatedtotherisinggenerationthroughsuchspecializedagenciesasthehomeandschool.Ideologyisonlypartofthemythsofanygivensociety.Therem

43、aybecounterideologiesdirectedagainstthedominantdoctrine,formula,andmiranda.Todaythepowerstructureofworldpoliticsisdeeplyaffectedbyideologicalconflict,andbytheroleoftwogiantpowers,theUnitedStatesandRussia.Therulingelitesviewoneanotheraspotentialenemies,notonlyinthesensethatinterstatedifferencesmaybes

44、ettledbywar,butinthemoreurgentsensethattheideologyoftheothermayappealtodisaffectedelementsathomeandweakentheinternalpowerpositionofeachrulingclass.SocialconflictandcommunicationUnderthecircumstances,onerulingelementisespeciallyalerttotheother,andreliesuponcommunicationasameansofpreservingpower.Onefu

45、nctionofcommunication,therefore,istoprovideintelligenceaboutwhattheothereliteisdoing,andaboutitsstrength.Fearfulthatintelligencechannelswillbecontrolledbytheother,inordertowithholdanddistort,thereisatendencytoresorttosecretsurveillance.Henceinternationalespionageisintensifiedaboveitsusuallevelinpeac

46、etime.Moreover,effortsaremadetoblackouttheselfinordertocounteractthescrutinyofthepotentialenemy.Inaddition,communicationisemployedaffirmativelyforthepurposeofestablishingcontactwithaudienceswithinthefrontiersoftheotherpower.Thesevariedactivitiesaremanifestedintheuseofopenandsecretagentstoscrutinizet

47、heother,incounterintelligencework,incensorshipandtravelrestriction,inbroadcastingandotherinformationalactivitiesacrossfrontiers.Rulingelitesarealsosensitizedtopotentialthreatsintheinternalenvironment.Besidesusingopensourcesofinformation,secretmeasuresarealsoadopted.Precautionsaretakentoimposesecurit

48、yuponasmanypolicymattersaspossible.Atthesametime,theideologyoftheeliteisreaffirmed,andcounter-ideologiesaresuppressed(p.92).Theprocessesheresketchedrunparalleltophenomenatobeobservedthroughouttheanimalkingdom.Specializedagenciesareusedtokeepawareofthreatsandopportunitiesintheexternalenvironment.Thep

49、arallelsincludethesurveillanceexercisedovertheinternalenvironment,sinceamongtheloweranimalssomeherdleaderssometimesgiveevidenceoffearingattackontwofronts,internalandexternal;theykeepanuneasyeyeonbothenvironments.Asameansofpreventingsurveillancebyanenemy,wellknowndevicesareatthedisposalofcertainspeci

50、es,.,thesquidsuseofaliquidfogscreen,theprotectivecolorationofthechameleon.However,thereappearstobenocorrelateofthedistinctionbetweenthesecretandopenchannelsofhumansociety.Insideaphysicalorganismtheclosestparalleltosocialrevolutionwouldbethegrowthofnewnervousconnectionswithpartsofthebodythatrival,and

51、cantaketheplaceof,theexistingstructuresofcentralintegration.CanthisbesaidtooccurastheembryodevelopsinthemothersbodyOr,ifwetakeadestructive,asdistinctfromareconstructive,process,canweproperlysaythatinternalsurveillanceoccursinregardtocancer,sincecancerscompeteforthefoodsuppliesofthebodyEfficientcommu

52、nicationTheanalysisuptothepresentimpliescertaincriteriaofefficiencyorinefficiencyincommunication.Inhumansocietiesanimalsocietiescommunicationisefficientwhenitaidssurvival,orsomeotherspecifiedneedoftheaggregate.Thesamecriteriacanbeappliedtothesingleorganism.Onetaskofarationallyorganizedsocietyistodis

53、coverandcontrolanyfactorsthatinterferewithefficientcommunication.Somelimitingfactorsarepsychotechnical.Destructiveradiation,forinstance,maybepresentintheenvironment,yetremainundetectedowingtothelimitedrangeoftheunaidedorganism(p.93).Buteventechnicalinsufficienciescanbeovercomebyknowledge.Inrecentyea

54、rsshortwavebroadcastinghasbeeninterferedwithbydisturbanceswhichwilleitherbesurmounted,orwilleventuallyleadtotheabandonmentofthismodeofbroadcasting.Duringthepastfewyearsadvanceshavebeenmadetowardprovidingsatisfactorysubstitutesfordefectivehearingandseeing.Alessdramatic,thoughnolessimportant,developme

55、nthasbeenthediscoveryofhowinadequatereadinghabitscanbecorrected.Thereare,ofcourse,deliberateobstaclesputinthewayofcommunication,likecensorshipanddrasticcurtailmentoftravel.Tosomeextentobstaclescanbesurmountedbyskillfulevasion,butinthelongrunitwilldoubtlessbemoreefficienttogetridofthembyconsentorcoer

56、cion.Sheerignoranceisapervasivefactorwhoseconsequenceshaveneverbeenadequatelyassessed.Ignoranceheremeanstheabsence,atagivenpointintheprocessof,communicationofknowledgewhichisavailableelsewhereinsociety.Lackingpropertraining,thepersonnelengagedingatheringanddisseminatingintelligenceiscontinuallymisco

57、nstruingoroverlookingthefacts,ifwedefinethefactsaswhattheobjective,trainedobservercouldfind.Inaccountingforinefficiencywemustnotoverlookthelowevaluationsputuponskillinrelevantcommunication.Toooftenirrelevant,orpositivelydistorting,performancescommandprestige.Intheinterestofascoop,thereportergivesase

58、nsationaltwisttoamildinternationalconference,andcontributestothepopularimageofinternationalpoliticsaschronic,intenseconflict,andlittleelse.Specialistsincommunicationoftenfailtokeepupwiththeexpansionofknowledgeabouttheprocess;notethereluctancewithwhichmanyvisualdeviceshavebeenadopted.Anddespiteresear

59、chonvocabulary,manymasscommunicatorsselectwordsthatfail.Thishappens,forinstance,whenaforeigncorrespondentallowshimselftobecomeabsorbedintheforeignsceneandforgetsthathishomeaudiencehasnodirectequivalentsinexperienceforleft,center,andotherfactionalterms(p.94).Besidesskillfactors,thelevelofefficiencyis

60、sometimesadverselyinfluencedbypersonalitystructure.Anoptimistic,outgoingpersonmayhuntbirdsofafeatherandgainanun-correctedandhenceexaggeratedlyoptimisticviewofevents.Onthecontrary,whenpessimistic,broodingpersonalitiesmix,theychoosequitedifferentbirds,whoconfirmtheirgloom.Therearealsoimportantdifferen