【語言學(xué)習(xí)】二語習(xí)得(L3)正模版課件

LessonThree

Interlanguageandthe‘natural’routeofdevelopmentTasks:1writingapaperonthetopiconthe‘natural’routeofdevelopmentofL2

2

writingapaperonthetopicsuccessanalysisinsteadoferroranalysis3writingapaperonthetopicAnanalysisofEnglishfossilizationofstudentatsomelevelLessonThree

Interlanguagean11.WhatarementalistviewsofL1acquisition?2.Whataretheassumptionsunderlyinginterlanguagetheory?3.Whataretheprincipalprocessesoperatedininterlanguage?4.Whatisfossilization?Why?5.WhataretheessentialCharacteristicsofLanguage-learnerlanguage?6.WhatarethedifferencesbetweenErroranalysisandContrastiveAnalysis?7.WhatinformationaboutinterlanguagedoesErrorAnalysisprovide?8.Whataretheempiricalevidencesfortheinterlanguagehypothesis?9.Whataretheproblemswiththeempiricalresearches?1.Whatarementalistviewsof2IntroductionBackgroundtheoryandresearchinL1acquisition(afixedorderarebasedonatheoryoflearningthatstressesthelearner-internalfactors)Thenotionofinterlanguage(theoreticalconstructusedtoidentifythestagesofdevelopment)‘natural’routeofdevelopment(Theprincipalgoalofthischapter)DiscussionoftheL2=L1hypotesisCaveats(regardingthecentralityoflearner-internalprocessesinaccountsofSLA)Introduction3MentalistaccountsoffirstlanguageacquisitionChomskyLennebergMcNeillMentalistaccountsoffirstla4LanguageacquisitiondeviceChomskyassumesthatchildrenarebornwithalanguageacquisitiondevice(LAD).ThisLADismadeupofasetofgeneralprinciplescalleduniversalgrammar.Thesegeneralprinciplescanbeappliedtoallthelanguagesintheworld.LanguageacquisitiondeviceCho5Definitionofacquisition

AcquisitioncanbebroadlydefinedastheinternalizationofrulesandformulaswhicharethenusedtocommunicateintheL2.Inthissensetheterm‘a(chǎn)cquisition’issynonymouswiththeterm‘learning’.However,Krashen(1981)usesthesetermswithdifferentmeaning.‘Acquisition’forKrashen,consistsofthespotaneousprocessofruleinternalizationthatresultsfromnaturallanguageuse,while‘learning’consistsofthedevelopmentofconsciousL2knowledgethroughformalstudy.Definitionofacquisition

Acqu6AcquisitiondeviceNativisttheoriesoflanguageacquistionemphasizetheimportanceoftheinnatecapacityofthelanguagelearnerattheexpenceofenvironmentalfactors.Eachlearneriscreditedwithan‘a(chǎn)cquisitiondevice’whichdirectstheprocessofacquisition.Thisdevececontainsinformationaboutthepossibleformthatthegramarofanylanguagecantake.AcquisitiondeviceNativistthe7ChomskyChomsky’s(1959)stressedtheactivecontributionofthechildandminimizedtheimportanceofimitationandreinforcement.Chomskyclaimedthatthechild’sknowledgeofhismothertonguewasderivedfromaUniversalGrammarwhichspecifiedtheessentialformthatanynaturallanguagecouldtake.ChomskyChomsky’s(1959)stres8ThisviewofFLAwasrepresentedintheformofamodel(e.g.Chomsky1966):

primarylinguisticdataADGThisviewofFLAwasrepresent9Primarylinguisticdataservedonlyasatriggerforactivatingthedevice.Itdidnotshapetheprocessofacquisition,whichwassolelythetaskoftheAD.ADcontainedtheUGtoworkandrequiredthelearneraccesstoprimarylinguisticdata.ForChomskythetaskofthelinguist(orpsychologist)wastospecifythepropertiesoftheADthatwereresponsibleforthegrammar.【語言學(xué)習(xí)】二語習(xí)得(L3)正模版課件10DefinitionofUniversalgrammarCook(1985)summarizingtheChomskyanposition,defines‘universalgrammar’as‘thepropertiesinherentinthehumanmind’.Universalgrmmarconsistsofasetofgeneralpriciplesthatapplytoalllanguagesratherthanasetofparticularrules.DefinitionofUniversalgramma11UniversalGrammarexistedasasetofinnatelinguisticprincipleswhichcomprisedthe‘initialstate’andwhichcontrolledtheformwhichthesentencesofanygivenlanguagecouldtake.AlsopartoftheUniversalGrammarwasasetofdiscoveryproceduresforrelatingtheuniversalprinciplestothedataprovidedbyexposuretoanaturallanguage.UniversalGrammarexistedasa12普遍語法在母語與第二語言習(xí)得過程中所起的作用?普遍語法在母語與第二語言習(xí)得過程中所起的作用?13普遍語法的兩大組成部分是普遍原則(principles)和參數(shù)(parameters),兩者合稱為核心語法(coregrammar)是語言中最本質(zhì)的部分,是不用學(xué)的,天生的。要學(xué)的是具體的語法和詞匯知識(shí),這些知識(shí)因母語的不同而不同,它們的習(xí)得是通過參數(shù)值的設(shè)定。兒童由于具有這種習(xí)得機(jī)制,在廣泛接觸語言素材中,通過假說驗(yàn)證與先天的普遍語言相比較,認(rèn)識(shí)到母語的語言規(guī)則,即取得了語言能力。普遍語法的兩大組成部分是普遍原則(princip14第二語言習(xí)得就是在已有的語言參數(shù)的基礎(chǔ)上習(xí)得另一種可能與現(xiàn)有語言參數(shù)相同或不同的語言。語言習(xí)得過程就是根據(jù)所接觸的語言材料建立語言參數(shù)值的過程。例如,任何一種語言都具有核心詞和修飾詞(如形容詞+名詞),這是一個(gè)普遍規(guī)律.但是有的語言修飾詞在核心詞之前,有的則在核心詞之后。比如,中文說“紅色的書”,而法語則說:“Lelivrerouge”(書紅色的)。在習(xí)得過程中,如果所接觸的語言是修飾詞在核心詞之前,學(xué)習(xí)者對(duì)這一規(guī)律的參數(shù)值即定位修飾詞+核心詞;如果接觸相反的語言材料,參數(shù)就定在相反值上。第二語言習(xí)得就是在已有的語言參數(shù)的基礎(chǔ)上習(xí)得另15第二語言習(xí)得與第一語言習(xí)得二者的相同點(diǎn):a.它們的發(fā)展模式相同;b.均受年齡因數(shù)的影響;c.語言輸入與輸出不對(duì)稱;不同：第一語言和第二語言不一致的前提下,普遍語法通過第一語言做用在第二語言習(xí)得上。第二語言習(xí)得不同于第一語言習(xí)得。第一語言習(xí)得是在大腦的初始狀態(tài)下進(jìn)行的。所謂初始狀態(tài)是指普遍語法還沒有轉(zhuǎn)化為具體語言的語法,因此第一語言的習(xí)得過成是參數(shù)值的確立過程;第二語言習(xí)得是在大腦的穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)下進(jìn)行的,在這種狀態(tài)下,普遍語法已經(jīng)轉(zhuǎn)換為具體語言的語法,因此第二語言的習(xí)得過程是參數(shù)值再確立(parameter-resetting)的過程。正因?yàn)橛羞@種差別,第一語言習(xí)得是無意識(shí)的,而第二語言習(xí)得是有意識(shí)的。在結(jié)果上,第一語言習(xí)得是百分之百的成功、圓滿,而第二語言習(xí)得很難達(dá)到圓滿。第二語言習(xí)得與第一語言習(xí)得二者的相同點(diǎn):a.它們的16普遍語法一定是處于初始狀態(tài)的，被具體語法代替后自然消失。二語學(xué)習(xí)中，學(xué)員接觸第二語言實(shí)例時(shí)會(huì)不由自主地將其與第一語言具體語法作比較，發(fā)現(xiàn)兩者不一致時(shí)，修正參數(shù)，建立第二語言具體語法，儲(chǔ)存大腦。大腦處于初始狀態(tài)時(shí)參數(shù)是原則的限制范圍，兒童通過假設(shè)驗(yàn)證過程確定某個(gè)具體語法后，參數(shù)與原則相對(duì)穩(wěn)定結(jié)合。普遍語法一定是處于初始狀態(tài)的，被具體語法代替后自17Lenneberg(1967)emphasizedthebiologicalprerequisitesoflanguage.Onlyhomosapienswascapableoflearninglanguage.Lennebergarguedthatthechild’sbrainwasspeciallyadaptedtotheprocessoflanguageacquisition,butthatthisinnatepropensitywaslostasmaturationtookplace.Hearguedthattherewasan‘a(chǎn)geofresonance’,duringwhichlanguageacquisitiontookplaceasageneticheritage.Lenneberg(1967)emphasizedthe18McNeillbelievesthatthechildbuiltuphisknowledgeofhismothertonguebymeansofhypothesistesting.McNeillbelievesthatthechil19WhatarementalistviewsofL1acquisition?MentalistviewsofL1acquisition:1Languageisahuman-specificfaculty.2Languageexistsasanindependentfacultyinthehumanmindi.e.althoughitispartofthelearner’stotalcognitiveapparatus,itisseparatefromthegeneralcognitivemechanismsresponsibleforintellectualdevelopment.3TheprimarydeterminantofL1acquisitionisthechild’s‘a(chǎn)cquisitiondevice’.Whichisgeneticallyendowedandprovidesthechildwithasetofprinciplesaboutgrammar.4The‘a(chǎn)cquisitiondevice’atrophieswithage.5theprocessofacquisitionconsistsofhypothesis–testing,bywhichmeansthegrammarofthelearner’smothertongueisrelatedtotheprinciplesofthe‘universalgrammar’.WhatarementalistviewsofL120TheprimarydeterminantofL1acquisitionisthechild’s‘a(chǎn)cquisitiondevice’.Why?(P45)Thefirstisthatmanyofthechildren’searlyutteranceswereunique,inthesensethatnonative–speakingadultcouldhaveproducedthem.

Ifthechild’slinguisticoutputdoesnotmatchtheinputtheexplanationmustlieintheinternalprocessingthathastakenplace.Thesecondisthatdevelopmentwascontinuousandincremental,butcouldbecharacterizedasaseriesofstages.a)thelengthofchildren’sutterancesgraduallyincreases.b)knowledgeofthegrammaticalsystemisbuildupinsteps.(P46)TheprimarydeterminantofL121AccordingtomentalistaccountsofFLA,languageacquisitionisauniversalprocess.Thetermprocessisusedwithtworelatedmeanings.1.referstothestagesofdevelopmentthatcharacterizetheroutethechildfollows;itisadescriptiveterm.2.concernshowthechildconstructsinternalrulesandhowheadjuststhemfromstagetostage;itisanexplanatoryterm.Accordingtomentalistaccount22WhatisInterlanguage?InterlanguageisthetermcoinedbySelinker(1972)torefertothesystematicknowledgeofasecondlanguagewhichisindependentofboththelearner’firstlanguageandthetargetlanguage.Thetermhascometobeusedwithdifferentbutrelatedmeanings:1)torefertothesystemthatisobservedatsinglestageofdevelopment(i.e.aninterlanguage).2)torefertotheseriesofinterlockingsystemswhichcharacterizeacquisition,(i.e.theinterlanguagecontinuum)3)torefertoparticularmothertongue/targetlanguagecombinations(e.g.Frenchmothertongue/EnglishtargetlanguevsGermanmothertongue/Englishtargetlanguage)Nemser–approximativesystemsCorderidiosyncraticdialects,transitionalcompetenceWhatisInterlanguage?I23

Whataretheassumptionsunderlyinginterlanguagetheory?Theassumptionsunderlyinginterlanguagetheory--Nemser(1971)1)atanygiventimetheapproximativesystemisdistinctfromtheL1andL2.2)theapproximativesystemsformanevolvingseries.3)inagivencontactsituation,theapproximativesystemsoflearnersatthesamestageofproficiencyroughlycoincide.Whataretheassumptionsunde24Theconceptof‘hypothesis-testing’wasusedtoexplainhowtheL2learnerprogressedalongtheinterlanguagecontinuum,inmuchthesamewayasitwasusedtoexplainL1acquisition.Coder(1967)madethiscomparisonexplicitbyproposingthatatleastsomeofthestrategiesusedbytheL2learnerwerethesameasthosebywhichFLAtakesplace.Particularly,CordersuggestedthatbothL1andL2learnersmakeerrorsinordertotestoutcertainhypothesesaboutthenatureofthelanguagetheyarelearning.Hesawthemakingof

errorsasastrategies,evidenceoflearner-internalprocessing.Theconceptof‘hypothesis-tes25Whataretheprincipalprocessesoperatedininterlanguage?(P48)Fiveprincipalprocessesoperatedininterlanguage--Selinker1)languagetransfer2)overgeneralizationoftargetlanguagerules3)transferoftraining4)strategiesofL2learning5)strategiesofL2communicationWhataretheprincipalprocess26Theninterferencewasseenasoneofseveralprocessesresponsibleforinterlanguage.FiveprocessestogetherconstitutethewaysinwhichthelearnertriestointernalizetheL2system.ThefiveprocessesarethemeansbywhichthelearnertriestoreducethelearningburdentomanageableproportionsWiddowson(1975b)suggestedthatthefiveprocessescanbesubsumedunderthegeneralprocessof‘simplification’.(ThisconceptonPage304)Theninterferencewasseenas27Whatisfossilization?

Fossilization(P48):SelinkernotedthatmanyL2learners(perhapsasmanyas95percent)failtoreachtargetlanguagecompetence.Thatis,theydonotreachtheendoftheinterlanguagecontinuum.Theystoplearningwhentheirinterlanguagecontainsatleastsomerulesdifferentfromthoseofthetargetlanguesystem.Hereferredtothisasfossilization.Whatisfossilization?Fossili28Fossilizedstructurescanberealizedaserrors

orascorrecttargetlanguageforms.Whenfossilizationoccurs,thelearnerhasreachedastageofdevelopmentinwhichfeaturexinhisinterlanguagehasassumedthesameformasinthetargetlanguage,thenfossilizationofthecorrectformwilloccur.Ifthelearnerhasreachedastageinwhichfeatureydoesnothavethesameformasthetargetlanguage,thefossilizationwillmanifestitselfaserror.Fossilizedstructuresmaynotbepersistent.SelinkerandLamendella(1978a)arguethatthecausesoffossilizationarebothinternalandexternal.Fossilizedstructurescanber29AccordingtoChomskyandothers,thetruedeterminantofL1acquisitionwasthechild’s‘a(chǎn)cquisitiondevice’,butthischangedwiththeagesuchthatautomatic,genetically-endowedlanguageacquisitionwasnotpossibleafterpuberty.ThequestionforSLA,then,wasthis:howdidadultssucceedinlearningaL2atallifresourcetothe‘a(chǎn)cquisitiondevice’responsibleforL1acquisitionwasnotpossible?AccordingtoChomskyandother30Selinkersuggestedthatthoseadultswhosuccessfullyachievenative-speakerproficiencyintheTLdosobecausetheycontinuetomakeuseofthe‘a(chǎn)cquisitiondevice’,or,asLennebergputit,latentlanguagestructure.Selinkersuggestedthatthose31RelativelyfewadultL2learnersreachnative-speakercompetence.SelinkerexplainedthisbysuggestingthattheseadultL2learnersfallbackonamoregeneralcognitivemechanism,whichhelabelledlatentpsychologicalstructure,whichisstillgenetically-determined,butdoesnotinvolveresourcetoUG.RelativelyfewadultL2learne32Therefore,accordingtoSelinker,SLAcanproceedintwodifferentways.ItcanutilizethesamemechanismsasFLA,oritcanmakeuseofalternativemechanisms,whicharepresumablyresponsibleforothertypesoflearningapartfromlanguage.(cognitiveorganizer)Therefore,accordingtoSelink33WhataretheessentialCharacteristicsofLanguage-learnerlanguage?Language-learnerlanguageispermeable.TheL2learner’sinterlanguageispermeable,inthesensethatrulesthatconstitutethelearner’sknowledgeatanyonestagearenotfixed,butareopentoamendment.Language-learnerlanguageisdynamic.TheL2learner’sinterlanguageisconstantlychanging.However,hedoesnotjumpfromonestagetothenext,butratherslowlyrevisedtheinterimsystemstoaccommodatenewhypothesesaboutthetargetlanguesystem.Language-learnerlanguageissystematic.Despitethevariabilityofinterlanguage,itispossibletodetecttherule-basednatureofthelearner’suseoftheL2.WhataretheessentialCharact34WhatarethedifferencesbetweenErroranalysisandContrastiveAnalysisErroranalysisisaprocedureusedbybothresearchersandteachers.Itinvolvescollectingsamplesoflearnerlanguage,identifyingtheerrorsinthesample,describingtheseerrors,classifyingthemaccordingtotheirhypothesizedcauses,andevaluatingtheirseriousness.EarlyinterlanguagetheorywascloselyassociatedwithErrorAnalysis,whichconstitutedanattempttoexplainerrors.Inmentalisttheoryerrorsserveasevidenceofthelearner’sactivecontributiontoacquisition.ContrastiveAnalysiswasdevisedtojustifyproceduresforpredictingerrors.InaccordancewithBehaviouristlearningtheory,thepreventionoferrorswasmoreimportantthantheidentificationoferrors.Inbehavioristaccountserrorsweretreatedasevidenceofnon-learning.Whatarethedifferencesbetw35WhataretheproceduresforErrorAnalysisspelledoutinCorder?(1974)(P51)1.Acorpusoflanguageisselected.2.Theerrorsinthecorpusareidentified.3.Theerrorsareclassified.4.Theerrorsareexplained.5.Theerrorsareevaluated.WhataretheproceduresforEr36Thecontextforthenewinterestinerrorswastherecognitionthattheyprovidedinformationabouttheprocessofacquisition.Thistermhastwomeanings.Thustwoquestionscanbeaskedtherefore.1.whatlightcanthestudyoflearnererrorsthrowonthesequenceofdevelopment–theinterlanguagecontinuumthroughwhichlearnerspass?2.WhatlightcanshedonstrategiesthatthelearnerusestoassimilatetherulesofL2?Thesetwoquestionsareofcentralimportancetothemainthemeofthischapter—‘natural’orderofdevelopmentThecontextforthenewintere37WhatinformationaboutinterlanguagedoesErrorAnalysisprovide?(53)ErrorAnalysisprovidestwokindsofinformationaboutinterlanguage;LinguistictypesoferrorsPsycholinguistictypeoferrors:overgeneralization(comed)IgnoranceofrulerestrictionsIncompleteapplicationofrulesFalseconceptshypothesized(heisspeaksFrench)Whatinformationaboutinterla38ThemostsignificantcontributionofEA,apartfromtheroleitplayedinthereassessmentoftheContrastiveAnalysisHypothesis,liesinitssuccessinelevatingthestatusoferrorsfromundesirabilitytothatofaguidetotheinnerworkingsofthelanguagelearningprocess.AsaresultofinterlanguagetheoryandtheevidenceaccumulatedfromErrorAnalysis,errorswerenolongerseenas‘unwantedforms,butasevidenceofthelearner’sactivecontributiontoSLA.Themostsignificantcontribut39Whataretheempiricalevidencesfortheinterlanguagehypothesis?Empiricalevidencefortheinterlanguagehypothesisfrom:Cross-sectionalresearchLongitudinalstudiesWhataretheempiricaleviden40EmpiricalevidencesfortheinterlanguagehypothesisWhatevidencesfortheinterlangugehypothesisdotheresearcherstrytofind?‘creativeconstruction’interpretationoftheinterlanguagecontinuum.ClaimsthatSLAfollowsa‘natural’routeofdevelopment.Whatarethedifferencebetweenrestructuringcontinuumandrecreationcontunuum?(54)Whatisorderofdevelopment?Whatissequenceofdevelopment?WhatisthepurposeofCross-sectionalresearch?WhatisthepurposeofLongitudinalstudies?Empiricalevidencesforthei41Whatarethedifferencebetweenrestructuringcontinuumandrecreationcontunuum?(54)

1.Wasthecontinuumtobeconceivedasstretchingfromthelearner’smothertonguetothetargetlanguage?Corder(1978a)referstothisviewofthecontinuumasarestructuringcontinuum.Inthisviewthelearnerisseenasgraduallyreplacingfeaturesofhismothertongueasheacquiresfeaturesofthetargetlanguage.2.Alternatively,wasthecontinuumtobeconceivedasthegradualcomplexificationofinterlanguageknowledge?Corderreferstothisastherecreationcontinuum.Thismeansthatthelearnerisseenasslowlycreatingtherulesystemofthetargetlanguageinamannerverysimilartothechild’sacquisitionofhisfirstlanguage.Earlystatementsoftheinterlanguagehypothesistendedtoassumethatthecontinuumwasmainlyarestructuringone(seeforinstanceNemser1971).However,astheroleoftheL1begantobequestioned,thisviewfelloutoffavorandinterlanguagewasviewedasarecreationcontinuum(see,forinstance,DulayandBurt1977).Empiricalresearchplayedanimportantpartinthisshiftofviewpoint.Whatarethedifferencebetwee42Cross-sectionalresearchAnumberofstudies,commonlyreferredtoasthemorphemestudies,werecarriedouttoinvestigatetheorderofacquisitionofarangeofgrammaticalfunctorsinthespeechofL2learners.TheyweremotivatedbythehypothesisthattherewasaninvariantorderinSLAwhichwastheresultofuniversalprocessingstrategiessimilartothoseobservedinL1acquisition.Cross-sectionalresearchAnumb43WhataretheproceduresofCross-sectionalresearch?(55)First,data(oralandlaterwritten)wereelicitedfromasampleofL2learners,usingsomekindofelicitationdevicesuchastheBilingualSyntaxMeasure(Burtetal.1973).Thenextstepwastoidentifythegrammaticalitemswhichwerethetargetoftheinvestigation.Theprocedurefollowedhereinvolvedidentifyingtheobligatoryoccasions(P301)foreachiteminthespeechcorpus.Eachitemwasscoredaccordingtowhetheritwascorrectlyusedineachcontext,andanaccuracysocreofitstotalusebyallthelearnersinthestudywascalculated.Itwasthenpossibletorankalltheitemsinorderoftheiraccuracyscores.Thisproducedanaccuracyorder,whichwasequatedwithacquisitionorderonthegroundsthatthemoreaccuratelyanitemwasused,theearlieritwasacquired.WhataretheproceduresofCro44

Whatareobligatoryoccasions?Whenthelinguisticcontextnecessitatestheuseofaparticularmorpheme,itissaidtoconstitutean‘obligatoryoccasion’,Forexamplethecontextcreatedby‘Therearetwo____playinginthegarden’requirestheuseofapluralmorpheme.Thefirststepinestablishingtheaccuracylevelofindividualmorphemeistoidentifyallobligatoryoccasionsforthemorphemesinthedata.

Whatareobligatoryoccasions45AccuracyorderLearnersproduceL2morphemessuchasthethirdperson–sorthearticles,aandthe,withvaryinglevelsofaccuracyatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Accuracyorderscanbeobtainedbyrankinganumberofmorphemesaccordingtotheiraccuracylevel.SomeSLAresearchershavehypothesizedthattheaccuracyordercorrespondstotheacquisitionorder.AccuracyorderLearnersproduce46WhatarethefindingsofCross-sectionalresearch?(56--57)WhatarethefindingsofCross47Thegeneralpicturethatemergesisthatthe‘a(chǎn)cquisitionorder’forthevariousgrammaticalfunctorsismoreorlessthesame,irrespectiveofthesubject’slanguagebackgrounds,oftheirage,andofwhetherthemediumisspeechorwriting.Theonlytimethatadifferentorderoccursiswhentheelicitationinstrumentrequiredthesubjectstofocusspecificallyontheformratherthanthemeaningoftheirutterances,asinsomeofthetasksinLarsen-Freeman’sstudy.ButasKrasen(1977:148)putsit,wherethedatarepresentedafocusonmeaningthere’s‘a(chǎn)namazingamountofuniformityacrossallstudies’.However,itshouldbenotedthatthestandardorderthatwasreportedwasdifferentfromtheorderofmorphemeacquisitionreportedforL1acquisition.Thegeneralpicturethatemerg48Theorderwasnotentirelyinvariableacrossstudies.DulayandBurt(1975)proposedthatratherthanlistthemorphemesinorderofaccuracy,itwasbettertogroupthemtogether.Eachgroupwouldreflectacleardevelopmentalstage,withthemorphemeswithineachgroupbeing‘a(chǎn)cquired’atmoreorlessthesametime.Thesegroupingswererepresentedasa‘hierarchy’(seeFigure3.1onPage56)Onthefaceofit,themorphemestudiesprovidedstrongevidenceofa‘natural’sequenceofdevelopmentinSLA.Irrespectiveoflearnerdifferences,L2learnersappeartoprogressalongtheinterlanguagecontinuuminaverysimilarway.Themainhypothesisofinterlanguagetheory,therefore,wassupported.Theorderwasnotentirelyinv49Problem:Attemptstotestthevalidityofthestudiesagainstcasestudiesofindividuallearners(Hakuta1974;Rosansky1976)suggestedthat‘a(chǎn)ccuracyorder’wasnotthesameas‘a(chǎn)cquisitionorder’.Theevidenceoftheselongitudinalstudiesrancountertothatofthemorphemestudies.Problem:50Longitudinalstudies

Longitudinalstudieshavetriedtoaccountforthegradualgrowthofcompetenceintermsofthestrategiesusedbyalearneratdifferentdevelopmentpoints.Longitudinalstudies

Longitudi51WhataretheadvantegesanddisadvantegesofLongitudinalstudies?(58)LongitudinalstudiesofSLAhaveonemajoradvantageoverbotheErrorAnalysisandthecross-sectionalstudies.TheyprovidedatafromdifferentpointsoftimeandthereforeenableareliableprofileoftheSLAofindividuallearnerstobeconstructed.Thedisadvantage,ofcourse,liesinthedifficultyofmakinggeneralizationsbasedontheprofilesofoneortwolearners.Whataretheadvantegesanddi52WhatdidLongitudinalstudiesresearchandwhatwerethefindings?

Thelongitudinalstudiesthatwillbediscussedinthissectionarethosethatfocusontheacquisitionofparticulargrammaticalsubsystems:

Nagatives

Interrogatives

RelatveclausesItisfromthesestudiesthatthestrongestevidenceforanaturalrouteofdevelopmentcomes.WhatdidLongitudinalstudies53ThedevelopmentofnegativesInitially,negativeutterancesarecharacterizedbyexternalnegation.Thatis,thenegativeparticle(usually‘no’)isattachedtoadeclarativenucleus:e.g.Noverygood.Noyouplayinghere.

Laterinternalnegationdevelops;thatis,thenegativeparticleismovedinsidetheutterance.Thisoftencoincideswiththeuseof‘not’and/or‘don’t’,whichisusedasthenegativeparticle.‘Don’t’atthisstage,however,isanunanalyzedunitandsocannotbedescribedas‘do+not’.e.g.Mariananotcomingtoday.Inocanswim.Idon’tseenothingmop.ThedevelopmentofnegativesIn54Athirdstepinvolvesnegativeattachmenttomodalverbs,althoughthismayagainoccurinunanalyzedunitsinitially.e.g.Ican’tplaythisone.Iwon’tgo.Inthefinalstageofnegationthetargetlanguageruleisreached.e.g.Hedoesn’tknowanything.Ididn’tsaidit.Shedidn’tbelieveme.Thewayalongthisrouteisagradualone,whichforsomelearnerscantakelongerthantwoyears.Thestagesarenotclearlydefined.Theyoverlap,sothatdevelopmentdoesn’tconsistofsuddenjumps,butofthegradualreorderingofearlyrulesinfavoroflaterones.Therearealsosomedifferencesamonglearners.Athirdstepinvolvesnegative551Noverygood.Noyouplayinghere2MariananotcomingtodayInocanswim.Idon’tseenothingmop.3Ican’tplaythisone.Iwon’tgo.4.Hedoesn’tknowanything.Ididn’tsaiditShedidn’tbelieveme1Noverygood.56Negation:externalnegationinternalnegationnegationwithmodalverbsnegationaccordingtotargetlgrulesNegation:externalnegation57Thedevelopmentofinterrogatives1)‘Non-communicative’stageThelearnerisnotabletoproduceanyspontaneousinterrogatives,butjustrepeatsaquestionsomeonehasaskedhim.Thefirstproductivequestionsareintonationquestions,i.e.utteranceswithdeclarativewordorderbutspokenwitharisingintonation.TherearealsosomeWh-questions,buttheseappeartohavebeenlearntasready-madechunks.e.g.Iamcolouring?Sirplaysfootballtoday?Iwritingonthisbooks?What’sthis?Thedevelopmentofinterrogati582)TheappearanceofproductiveWh-questions

Thereisnosubject-verbinversiontostartoffwith,andtheauxiliaryverbisoftenomitted.e.g.Whatyouaredoing?What‘tub’mean?Whatthetime?Whereyouwork?

2)Theappearanceofproductiv59Inversionoccursinyes/noquestionsandinWh-questions.Inversionwith‘be’tendstooccurbeforeinversionwith‘do’.e.g.Areyouanurse?Whereisthegirl?Doyouworkinthetelevision?Whatisshe‘sdoinghere?Inversionoccursinyes/noque604)EmbeddedquestionsarethelasttodevelopedWhentheyfirstappear,theyhaveasubject-verbinversion,asinordinaryWh-questions.e.g.Itellyouwhatdidhappen.Later,thelearnersuccessfullydifferentiatethewordorderofordinaryande