新編簡明英語語言學教程 戴偉棟版

新編簡明英語語言學教程戴偉棟版新編簡明英語語言學教程戴偉棟版新編簡明英語語言學教程戴偉棟版xxx公司新編簡明英語語言學教程戴偉棟版文件編號：文件日期：修訂次數(shù)：第1.0次更改批準審核制定方案設(shè)計，管理制度新編簡明英語語言學教程戴偉棟版第1章導言本章要點：1.Thedefinitionandmainbranchesoflinguisticsstudy語言學的定義和研究范圍2.ImportantdistinctioninLinguistic語言學的一些重要區(qū)分3.Thedefinitionandthedesignfeaturesoflanguage語言的定義和識別特征4.Functionoflanguage語言的功能本章考點：語言學考點：語言學的定義，語言學中幾組重要的區(qū)別，每組兩個概念的含義、區(qū)分及其意義；普通語言學的主要分支及各自研究范疇；宏觀語言及應(yīng)用語言學的主要扥只及各自的研究范疇。語言的考點：語言的定義；語言的識別特征（任意性，能產(chǎn)性，二重性，移位性，文化傳遞性）；語言的功能1,Thedefinitionoflinguistics語言的定義：Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage(basedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetogeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure)2.Thescopeoflinguistics語言學的范圍A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（語音學）:thestudyofthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.Phonology（音系學）:thestudyofhowsoundsputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.(語音分布和排列的規(guī)則及音節(jié)的形式)Morphology（形態(tài)學）:thestudyofthewayinwhichthesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords.Syntax（句法學）:thestudyofrulesinthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguage.Semantics（語義學）:thestudyofmeaning.Pragmatics（語用學）:thestudyofthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics:thestudyofallsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwiththesocietyformthecoreofthebranch.Psycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguageanditsrelationwithpsychology.Appliedlinguistics:thestudyofapplicationoflanguagetothesolutionofpracticalproblems.Narrowlyitistheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.3.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics語言學中的重要區(qū)分A:DescriptivevsPrescriptive描寫式與規(guī)定式Descriptive:ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Prescriptive:ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhatshouldtheysayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobePrescriptive.B:SynchronicvsDiachronic共時性和歷時性Synchronic:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy.Diachronic:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.C:Speechvswriting言語和文學Thesearemajormediaofcommunication.D:Languevsparole語言與言語(Saussure索緖爾)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbytheallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parole:referstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.E:Competencevsperformance語言能力和語言應(yīng)用(Chomsky喬姆斯基)Competence:referstoauser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemoftherules.Performance:referstotheactualuseinconcretesituations.喬姆斯基和索緒爾的區(qū)別：索緒爾采用的是社會學的觀點，他的語言觀念是社會慣例性的。喬姆斯基從心理學角度看待語言，對他而言，語言能力是每個個體的大腦特征。E:TraditionalGrammarvsmodernlinguistics傳統(tǒng)語法與現(xiàn)代語言學Saussure的《CourseinGeneralLinguistics》標志著現(xiàn)代語言學的開端。區(qū)別：a:語言學是descriptive,傳統(tǒng)的語法是prescriptive.b:現(xiàn)代語言學認為口頭語是基本的，而不是書面語。c:現(xiàn)代語言學并不強迫進入一個拉丁語為基礎(chǔ)的框架。4.Thedefinitionoflanguage語言的定義Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.5.Thedesignfeaturesoflanguage語言的識別特征Thedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguagecanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichdistinguishitfromanimallanguagesystem.A：Arbitrariness任意性Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsounds.B：Productivity能產(chǎn)性Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.C：Duality二重性Twolevels:Atthelowerorthebasiclevelisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Athigherlevel,thesoundsoflanguagecanberegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning.D：Displacement移位性Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaingedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.E：Culturaltransmission文化傳遞Languageisculturallytransmitted.F：Interchangeability互換性Referstomancanbothproduceorreceivethemassages.6.Functionsoflanguage語言的功能A：mainfunctions(1)Descriptivefunction(描述):referstoconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbestatedordenied,andevenverified.(2)Expressivefunction(表達):referstoemotiveorattitudinalfunction,conveyinformationaboutuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudice,andvalues.(3)Socialfunction(社會):referstointerpersonalfunction,servestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.Jakobson將語言功能劃分六大類：emotive,conative(意動),referential(指向),poetic(娛樂),phaticcommunication(寒暄),andmatalinguistic(元語言).B：macrofunctions(1)Ideational(概念):Itistoorganizethespeaker’sorwriter’sexperienceoftherealorimaginaryworld.(2)Interpersonal(人際):Itistoindicate,establish,ormaintainsocialrelationshipsbetweenpeople.(3)Textual:Itistoorganizethewrittenorspokentextsinacoherentmanner,andfittheparticularsituationinwhichtheyareused.注意知識點：1.Onomatopoeicwords(擬聲詞)canNOTshowarbitrarynatureoflanguage.(擬聲詞并不能表示語言的任意性，有些擬聲詞和所表達的事物是有聯(lián)系的。)2.聾啞人所使用的語言也是語言。3.語言的改變并不是任意的，而是遵循社會規(guī)律的。4.語言是在人類出現(xiàn)一段時間后出現(xiàn)的。第2章音位學本章要點：1.Speechorgans發(fā)音器官2.Distinction,classificationandthecriteriaofdescriptionbetweenconstantsandvowels輔音和元音的區(qū)別、分類及描寫規(guī)則3.Phonemesandallophones音位和音位變體4.Phonologicalruleanddistinctivefeatures音系規(guī)則和區(qū)別特征5.Syllablestructure,stressandintonation音節(jié)結(jié)構(gòu)、重音和語調(diào)本章考點：語音學：語音學的定義；發(fā)音器官的英文名稱；英語輔音的定義、發(fā)音部位、發(fā)音方法和分類；英語元音的定義和分類、基本元音；發(fā)音語音學；聽覺語音學；聲學語音學；語音標記；嚴式標音法和寬式標音法。音系學：音系學的定義；音系學與語音學的區(qū)別；音素，音位，音位變體最小對立體，自由變體的定義；自由變體；音位對立分布與互補分布；區(qū)別性特征；超語段音位學；音節(jié)；重音（詞重音，句子重音）；音高和音調(diào)。本章內(nèi)容索引：1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage2.Phonetics語音學(1)Thedefinitionofphonetics(2)Threeresearchfields(3)Organsofspeech(4)Voicelesssounds(5)Voicedsounds(6)Orthographicrepresentationsofspeechsounds——broadandnarrowtranscriptions(7)ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsA:DefinitionB:ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsC:ClassificationofEnglishvowels3.Phonology(1)Relationshipbetweenphonologyandphonetics(2)Phone,phonme(3)Allophone(4)SomerulesinphonologyA:SequentialrulesB:AssimilationruleC:Deletionrule(5)Supra-segmentalfeatures:stress,tone,intonationA:stressB:toneC:intonation1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage2.Phonetics語音學(1)ThedefinitionofphoneticsPhonetics:isdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumofEnglishlanguage.Itconcernswiththesoundsthatoccurintheworld’languages.(2)Threeresearchfields三大研究領(lǐng)域考點名詞解釋A:Articulatoryphonetics發(fā)音語音學:thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.B:Acousticphonetics聲學語音學:thestudyofphysicalproperties(特征)ofspeechsounds.C:Perceptualphonetics感知語音學:referstotheperceptionofspeechsounds.(3)OrgansofspeechVocalorgans:lungs,trachea(氣管),throat,nose,andmouth.(4)Voicelesssounds清音Thesoundproducedwithoutcausingthevibrationofthevocalcords(聲帶).(5)Voicedsounds濁音Thesoundproducedwithcausingthevibrationofthevocalcords(聲帶).(6)Orthographicrepresentationsofspeechsounds——broadandnarrowtranscriptions語音正字表——寬式和嚴式標音A:Broadtranscriptions:transcriptionwiththelettersymbolsonly(一般用于詞典和教學)B:Narrowtranscriptions:transcriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(變音符號).(語言學家在語言研究中使用)IPA:InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(國際音標)產(chǎn)生于19世紀末。(7)ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds語音的分類A:Definitiona:Consonants:soundsareproducedbyconstrictingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impedeorcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.b:Vowels:soundsproducedwithoutobstruction,sonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheairintheoralcavity.B:ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsa:intermsofthemannersofarticulation(發(fā)音方式):Stops(爆破音):pbtdkg6Fricatives(摩擦音):/f//v//θ//e//s//z//?//?/h//r/8Affricatives(塞擦音):/t?//d?/Liquids(清音):/l//r/Nasals(鼻音):/m,n,η/Glides(滑音):/wj/b:intermsofplaceofarticulation(發(fā)音部位)bilabials(雙唇音):/pbmw/labiodentals(唇齒音):/fv/dentals(齒音):/e//θ/alveolars(齒齦音):/tdnlrs/6palatals(腭音):/j??t?d/5velars(軟腭音):/kgη/glottal(喉音):/h/C:ClassificationofEnglishvowelsa:thepositionofthetoneinmouth:front,central,back,b:theopennessofthemouth:closedsemi-closedsemi-openandopen.c:theshapeofthelips:roundedandunroundedd:thelengthofthevowels:tenseandlaxorlongandshort3.Phonology(1)RelationshipbetweenphonologyandphoneticsSimilarity:Bothconcernedwiththespeechsounds.Differences:ApproachandFocus.Phonetics:generalnature,itisinterestedinallhumanlanguages.Phonology:howspeechsoundsformpatternsandhowsoundsconveymeanings.(2)Phone,Phoneme考點Phone:Itisabasicunitofphoneticstudy,aminimalsoundsegmentthathumanspeechcanproduce.Butdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phoneme:Itisabasicunitofphonologicalstudy.Itisanabstractcollectionofphoneticfeatureswhichcandistinguishmeaning.(3)Allophone:Thedifferentrealizationsofthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledallophones.（同一個音位在不同的語音環(huán)境中的實現(xiàn)方式被稱為音位的音位變體）（1）complementarydistribution:whentwoormoreallophonesofthesamephonemedonotdistinguishmeaningandoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments,thentheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.(當同一個音位的兩個或兩個以上的音位變體不區(qū)別意義，并且出現(xiàn)在不同的語音環(huán)境中，那么他們被稱作處于互補分布)（2）Freevariation:如果兩個音素出現(xiàn)在同一個相同的語音環(huán)境中，并不區(qū)別意義，即用一個音素去替換另一個音素不產(chǎn)生新詞，僅僅產(chǎn)生同一個詞的不同讀音。那么這兩個音素就可被視為自由變體。（3）Phonemiccontrast:語音相似的音如果是區(qū)別性音位，那么可以說他們形成了一個音位對立。如“k”和“g”在cut和gut是兩個不同的音位，這兩個詞除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個音外，其余的音都一樣，因此這兩個詞就構(gòu)成了最小對立體minimalpairs。音位對立指的是能夠造成意義差別的語音差別，比如mate和late，每一個單詞的第一個輔音都能造成音位差別，因此形成音位對立。最小對立體就是兩個對立的音位只有一個語音特征不同，其他語音特征都相同。比如pate和bate中的[p]和[b]，都是輔音、都是爆破音、都是雙唇音，但有一點不一樣，前者是清輔音，后者是濁輔音。相反，[m]和[p]就不能形成最小對立體，因為它們雖然都是輔音、都是唇音，但至少有兩個語音特征不同：除了清濁不同外，一個是鼻音，一個是爆破音。(4)Somerulesinphonology音位學的一些規(guī)則A:thesequentialrulesTherearerulestogovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,andtheserulesarecalledsequentialrules.某一特定語言的語言模式是受規(guī)則支配的，這就叫做序列規(guī)則。例如：如果一個單詞的以L開頭，那后面接的必須是元音。B:theassimilationrule同化規(guī)則同化指一個音具有了臨近音的一部分或者全部特征的這一過程，包括鼻化，齒化，鄂化。同化規(guī)則通過“拷貝”序列音位的一個特征來將一個音同化為另一個，從而使兩個音相似。相鄰近的同化多半是由發(fā)音或者生理過程引起的。我們說話時，傾向于增加發(fā)音的舒適度，這種懶惰的傾向可能會被規(guī)律化，作為語言的規(guī)則。例如：[I:]在beangreenteam單詞中，[I:]會被鼻音化。C:deletionrule省略規(guī)則省略規(guī)則告訴我們在什么時候省略一個語音，雖然這個音在正字法上是仍有體現(xiàn)。例如：g在單詞sign，design中是不發(fā)音的，但在完整的signature和designation中的g是發(fā)音的。(5).supra-segmentalfeatures:stress,toneandintonation超切分特征：重音，音調(diào)，語調(diào)A:單詞和句子的重音，重音可以區(qū)分意義。'digestn.摘要di'gestv.消化Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.B:音調(diào)是由聲帶vocalcord的不同震動引起的。C:語調(diào)涉及出現(xiàn)的升降模式，每個模式都應(yīng)用于相對一致的意義。注意點：Speechismorebasicthanwriting的原因：A:linguisticevolution’view,speechispriortowriting.B:ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwriting(amountofinformationconveyed)C:nativespeakersacquiretheirmothertonguebyspeech.D:spokenlanguagerevealmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeech.phone與phoneme區(qū)別Aphoneisphoneticunitorsegment,thespeechsoundwehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisnotaparticularsound,whichisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Allophones:clearlanddarklareallophonesofthephonemel.3.cardinalvowels基本元音英國音位學家DanielJonesChapter5Semantics1.Definition1.命名論ThenamingtheoryProposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.(缺點：僅限于名詞)2.意念論TheconceptualistviewOgdenandRichardsItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3.語境論ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Herearetwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.4.行為主義論BehaviorismItreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe”situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.Thistheorysomewhatclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.2.Lexicalmeaning:Sense:itisconcernedwithinherentmeaningoflinguisticform;itisthecollectionofallfeaturesoflinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Reference:itmeansthelinguisticformreferstothereal,physicalworld.Itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.3.Mainsenserelations1.同義詞SynonymyItreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.(1)Dialectalsynonyms—synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（方言）BritishAmericaAutumfallFlatapartment(2)Stylisticsynonyms---Synonymsdifferinginstyle（文體）Oldmandaddyfathermaleparent(3)Synonymsthatdifferentintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning（情感）CollaboratorVSAccomplice(4)Collocationalsynonyms（搭配）AccuseVSCharge（accuse…of;charge…with）RottentomatoesVSAddledeggs(5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms（語義）AmazeVSAstound2.多義詞PolysemyItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Ball:1,aroundobjectusedingame.2.alargeformalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance.3.同音(形)異義HomonymyItreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.1.Homophones同音異義Itreferstotwowordsareidenticalinsound.e.g.rain/reign.2.Homographs同形異義Itreferstotwowordsareidenticalinform.e.g.tearv./tearn.3.Completehomonyms同形同音Itreferstowordsthatarebothidenticalinsoundandspelling.e.g.tearv./tearn.6.上下義關(guān)系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Superordinate:animalSubordinate:cat,dog,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear,7.反義詞AntonymyIt’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.gradable:等級反義詞old-youngcomplementary：互補反義詞male-femalerelational:關(guān)系father-sonbuy-sell4.Sentencesenserelations:1.XissynonymouswithY（同義）Eg.Heisabachelorallhislife.Henevermarriedallhislife.XisinconsistentwithY（不一致）Eg.JohnismarriedJohnisabachelor.XentailsY（附屬）Eg.HehasbeentoFrance.HehasbeentoEurope.XpresupposeY（Y是X的先決條件）Eg.John’sbikeneedsreparing.Johnhasabike.Xisacontradiction（X是一個矛盾句）Eg.Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.Xissemanticallyanomalous.（語義異常）Eg.Thetablehasbadintensions.5.Analysisofmeaning1.ComponentialAnalysis成分分析法----分析詞匯抽象意義It’sawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Eg.Man=Adult+Male+Animate+Human2.PredicationAnalysis述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析(由BritishLinguistG.Leech提出)It’sanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.(通過對論元argument和謂語predicate的分析，達到對句子意義進行分析的許多模式中的一種.)3.先設(shè)前提PresuppositionIt’sasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.4.蘊涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.第6章pragmatics本章要點：1.speechacttheory言語行為的理論2.cooperativeprincipleanditsmaxins合作原則及其準則3.Griceantheoryofconventionalimplicature格萊斯會話含義理論本章考點：語用學的定義；語義學與語用學的區(qū)別；語境與意義；言語行為理論（發(fā)話行為、行事行為和取效行為）；合作原則。實例分析言語行為、合作原則的違反和會話含義。本章內(nèi)容索引：1．PragmaticsDefinitionPragmatics&semanticsContextSentencemeaningvsutterancemeaning2．SpeechacttheoryAustin’smodelofspeechactsSearl’sclassificationofspeechactsIndirectspeechacts3．PrincipleofconversionCooperativeprincipleanditsmaxinsViolationofthemaxins4．ConversationalimplicatureDefinitionCharacteristicsofconversationalimplicativeCalculabilityCancellabilityNon-detachabilityNon-conventionality5．Cross-culturalpragmaticsfailure1．PragmaticsDefinitionItisthestudyofspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Pragmatics&semanticsIfthecontextwastakenintothestudyofmeaning,thenthestudycallspragmatics.ContextA:Definition:Itisgenerallyconsideredastheknowledgethatsharedbythespeakerandhearer.B:Significance:Itdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandthehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Withcontext,thecommunicationwouldachievesatisfactoryresult.SentencemeaningvsUtterancemeaning句子意義和話語意義Sentencemeaning:abstractandde-contextualized.Utterancemeaning:concreteandcontextdependent,andbasedonsentencemeaning.2．SpeechacttheoryAustin’smodelofspeechactsA:Anlocutionaryact(言內(nèi)行為)：anactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Literalmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.B:Anillocutionaryact(言外行為)：anactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention.C:Anperlocutionaryact(言后行為)：anactofperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;theconsequenceorchangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;Searl’s(瑟爾)classificationofspeechactsA:Representatives(闡述類):statingordescribing,sayingsomethingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.陳述，相信，發(fā)誓Eg:IswearIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.B:directives(指令類)：Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.advise，ask，beseech，command，demand，order，request，tell，urge。Eg：openthedoor!C:Commissives(承諾類)：mit，consent，guarantee，offer，pledge，promise，refuse，threaten。Eg：Ipromisetocome!D:Expressives(表達類)：expressingthefeelingorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.apologize，boast，congratulate，deplore，regret，thank，welcomeEg：IamsorryforthemessIhavemade.E:Declarations(宣告類)：bringaboutimmediatechangebysayingsomething.appoint，bless，christen，declare，name，nominate，resignEg:Ifireyou.Indirectspeechacts(developedbySearl)Twospeechacts:Theprimary:speaker’sgoalofcommunicationThesecond:meansbywhichheachieveshisgoal.3．PrincipleofconversionCooperativeprincipleanditsmaxins(PaulGrice)A:themaximofquantity量的準則:(youarewhatyousay)Makeyourcontributioninformativeasrequired,notmoreinformativethanrequired.B:themaximofquality質(zhì)的準則:Tautologies(意思重復(fù))Donotsaysomethingyoubelieveisfalse,orsomethingislakeofevidence.C:themaximofrelation關(guān)系準則:Berelevant.D:themaximofmanner方式準則:Avoidobscurity,ambiguity,bebriefandorderly.Violationofthemaxims通過實例分析違反準則。4．ConversationalimplicatureDefinitionCharacteristicsofconversationalimplicativeCancellability/defeasibilityThismeansthatanimplicaturecanbecancelled.Thefeatureallowsthespeakertoimplysomethingandthendenythatimplicature.A:Let'shaveadrink.B:It'snotoneo'clockyet.(implyingwecandrinkafteroneo'clock)A:Ididn'tsaythatyoucoulddrinkafteroneo'clock.Isaidthatyoucouldn'tdrinkbefore.(theimplicaturedisappears)Non-detachabilityThismeansthatanimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottolinguisticform.Thereforeimplicaturescannotbedetachedfromanutterancesimplybychangingthewordsforsynonymsorinotherwordsbyrelexicalizationorreformulation.Forexample,ifeveryoneknowsthatBobisanidiot,saying"Bobisagenius"toconveytheoppositemeaning"Bobisterriblyfoolish,hecanchooseanyofthefollowingsynonymousexpressionstomaintainthesameimplicature:a)Bobisamentalprodigy.b)Bobisanexceptionallycleverhumanbeing.c)Bobisanenormousintellect.d)Bobisabigbrain.Calculability/derivabilityThismeansthatanimplicatureiscalculable,thatistosay,itcanbeworkedoutfromtheliteralmeaningorthesenseoftheutteranceontheonehand,andtheCooperativePrincipleanditsmaximsontheotherhand.Non-conventionalityThisistosaythatconversationalimplicaturesarenotconventional,thatis,notpartoftheconventionalmeaningoflinguisticexpressions.Butweshouldnoticethatwhatbeginsasaconversationalimplicaturemaybecomethemeaningofalexicalitemorlinguisticexpression.Forexample:"Gotothebathroom"originallymeantGoingtoWCasaneuphemism,butnowhasbecomeconventionalized.Wedon'thavetoderivetheimplicaturebytheCPbutbyconvention.5．Cross-culturalpragmaticsfailure第7章languagechanges語言變化本章要點：1．Phonologicalchange音系變化2．Morphologicalandsyntacticchange形態(tài)和句法變化3．Lexicalandsemanticchange詞匯和語義變化本章考點：新詞的增加：創(chuàng)新詞，縮略詞，緊縮詞，詞首字母縮略詞，逆構(gòu)詞法；詞義的變化：詞義擴大，縮小，意義的轉(zhuǎn)換。1.Definitionofhistoricallinguistics歷史語言學的定義Abranchoflinguistics.Itconcernedwiththedescriptionandexplanationoflanguagechangesthatoccurredoverthetime.2.PhonologicalchangePhonologicalchangetendstobesystematic.ItispossibletoseearegularpatternofpronunciationchangesthroughoutthehistoryofEnglishlanguage.3.MorphologicalandsyntacticchangeAdditionofaffixes詞匯的增加InEnglishmanyaffixesareborrowed.Egthesuffix–mentinFrench.LostofaffixesSomeaffixesfadeoutofusefornoapparentreasons.ChangesforwordorderCasemarkinglost,subject-object-verbfixed.ChangeinnegationruleEg.Ilovetheenot.>Idonotlovethee.4lexicalandsemanticchange(1)Additionofnewwords新詞的增加A:coinage/inventionAnewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose.Eg:walkman,Kodak,FordB:clippedwordsClippingreferstotheabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrase.Eggym-gymnasiumExpo-expositionMemo-memorandumDisco-discothequeC:blendingAblendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords.Egsmog=smoke+fogMotelBrunch=breakfast+lunchD:AcronymsAcronymsarewordderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.EgBBCVOAE:Back-formationDeletingtheaffixes.Egto

automate

自動化←automation

to

legislate

立法←legislation

F:FunctionalshiftWord-classshiftfromonetoanother.Egnoun-verbloveG：Borrowing借詞法(2)Lossofwords詞匯的廢棄Egbeseem–tobesuitableWot–toknowGyve–afetter(3)changeinthemeaningofwordsSemanticbroadening詞義擴大Holiday原形是holyday神圣的宗教節(jié)日，現(xiàn)在指不用上班的時間。Semanticnarrowing詞義的縮小Hound曾經(jīng)用來指Dog的總稱，現(xiàn)在縮小為指某一種特殊的狗。Semanticshift詞義轉(zhuǎn)換Inn原本指小旅館小酒吧，現(xiàn)在指非常有名的好旅館。5SomerecenttrendsA:movingtogreaterinformality.Ain’tcan’tdidn’t出現(xiàn)在文章中。B:theinfluenceofAmericanEnglish隨著政治經(jīng)濟文化的發(fā)張，美國的影視，報紙，雜志，廣播和電視對世界文化造成很大的影響。C:theinfluenceoftechnologyandscience新的技術(shù)科技的發(fā)展創(chuàng)造出新的詞匯和表達D:SpacetravelSpacesuit,heat-shieldsplash-downE:computerandinternetlanguagePrograminputoutputF:Ecology生態(tài)學環(huán)境保護和資源保護。6causesoflanguagechange語言變化的原因經(jīng)濟政治文化發(fā)展。第8章sociolinguistics1thescopeofsociolinguisticsThedefinitionofsociolinguistics定義Itisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandsocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Therelatednessbetweenthelanguageandsociety相關(guān)性Themainfunctionoflanguageiscommunication,butitalsousetoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationship.Usersofthesamelanguagemayspeakdifferentlybecausetheirdifferentsocialbackground.Speechcommunityandspeechvariety言語團體與言語變體Speechcommunity:thesocialgroupthatsingledoutforanyspecialstudy.Speechvariety:anydistinguishableformoflanguageusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Speechfeaturescanbefoundatthelexical,thephonological,morphological,orthesyntacticallevelofthelanguage.TwoapproachestosociolinguisticsstudiesMacro-sociolinguisticsorthesociologyoflanguage:宏觀社會語言學或者語言社會學Viewthesocietyasawholeandconsiderhowlanguagefunctionsinitandhowitreflectthesocialdifferentiations.Micro-sociolinguisticsorsociolinguisticsproper:微觀社會語言學或嚴格意義的社會語言學：Lookatthesocietyfromthepointofviewofanindividualmemberwithinit.2varietiesoflanguageDialectalvarietiesRegionaldialectDefinition:referstothelanguageusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.Features:Regionaldialectboundariesareoftencoincidingwithgeographicalboundaries.Inmostcases,theregionaldialectintwoneighboringareaaremutuallyintelligibletoagreatextent,andthechangefromonedialecttoanotherisgradual.Reasons:Thegeographicbarriers;loyaltytotheone’snativespeech;physicalandpsychologicalresistancetothechange.Sociolect(1)Definition:social-classdialectreferstothecharacteristicsofaparticularsocialclass.(2)Features:twopeoplefromthesamegeographicmayspeakdifferentlybecauseoftheirsocialfactors,suchasbackgroundinfluencewhichinfluencelinguisticform.(3):Ascentisanimportantmakerofsociolect.Languageandgender(標準，語調(diào)，詞匯，禮貌)Thelanguageofwomanismorestandardthanthatofman.Womanhaswiderrangeofintonation.WomantendtouseadjectivesofevaluationWomantendstobemorepolitethanman.Languageandage(詞匯差異)A)thelanguageusedbytheoldgenerationandtheyoungergenerationisdifferent,especiallyinthelexicallevel.Idiolect(個人語言)Referstopersonaldialectthatwasdecidedbyhissocialbackground,gender,ageandsoon.EthnicdialectItisusuallyusedbytheunderprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofracialdiscriminationandsegregation.FeaturesofblackEnglish(非中產(chǎn)階級，輔音的簡化，be動詞的省略)mainlyusedbythenon-middle-classBlacksthesimplificationoftheconsonantclusters.(語音上)deletionof“be”（句法上）theuseofdoublenegationstructure：hedon’tknownothing.Register語域選擇與情景類型相適應(yīng)的語