員工薪酬體系外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)

文獻(xiàn)信息:文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)題：EMPLOYBEREFERENCFORPAYSYSTEMDRITERIA:APAYSYSTEMSURVEY員工對薪酬體系標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的偏好：薪酬體系的調(diào)查)國外作者：ChristineH.Schuldes文獻(xiàn)出處：Ph.D.CapellaUniversity,2006(4):144-198字?jǐn)?shù)統(tǒng)計：英文2297單詞，12728字符；中文4159漢字外文文獻(xiàn)：EMPLOYEEPREFERENCESFORPAYSYSTEM

CRITERIA:APAYSYSTEMSURVEYBackgroundoftheProblemAsthe21stCenturyprogresses,thehighlycompetitiveenvironmentinwhichorganizationsoperateandrecentevents,suchastheDfailuresandtheterroristattacksof9/11,havecausednumerouscompaniestodownsize,lay-offemployees,orreduceemployeecompensation,includingGE,IBM,Citicorp,AT&T,Kodak,Goodyear,Exxon,Xerox,TRW,andGM(Bateman&Snell,2004;Lawler,2005).Asaresult,retainingthebestemployeesandrecruitingpeoplewiththegreatestpotentialarevitaltothesuccessandsurvivaloftheorganization(Lawler,2003&2005).Rewardsystemscanservethestrategicpurposeofattracting,motivating,andretainingpeople;yet,acomplexsetoffactorsisusedtodetermineanemployee'scompensation(Bateman&Snell,2004).Theearliestformsofrewardsforproductivitywerefood,shelter,andprotection,allofwhicharevitaltosurvival.Yet,theoriginationofmonetarysystemscausedpaytobecomethemostcommonformofrewardandmoneyhasbecomethemediumofexchangeforallcommodities.Theuseofeconomicincentivestomotivatepeoplehasbeenacommonpracticeinmanysocietiesandhasgeneratedamyriadofspeculationandaplethoraofresearch(Milkovich&Newman,2005).Consideredtobethefatherofscientificmanagement,FrederickTayloriscreditedwithpopularizingtheuseofmoneyasamotivationalworktooloveracenturyago(Bateman&Snell,2004).NumeroustheoriesthatarerelevanttotheuseofeconomicincentivestomotivateworkersarerootedinTaylor'scientificmanagement,includingVroom'ExpectancyTheory,Herzberg'Two-FactorTheory,Skinner'ReinforcementTheory,andAdamsEquityTheory(Lawler,2000).Inaddition,thereisanabundanceofresearchstudiesthathavefocusedonperformance-basedpay,ofwhichthemostfamousaretheHawthorneStudies.EdwardE.Lawlerfurtheredtheevolutionofeconomicmotivationtheorywhenheproposedthatemployeesperformathigherlevelswhentheirpayisrelatedtoperformance(1966&1971)andconductedstudiestodemonstratethatemployeesperformathigherlevelswhenpayisrelatedtoperformance(Cammann&Lawler,1973).Ithasbeenduringthepastfourdecadesthatpaysatisfactionhasbecomeanintensiveareaofinquiry.Earlypaysatisfactionresearchfocusedontheantecedentsofpaysatisfaction,andthisfocusresultedinseveraltheoreticalmodelsofpaysatisfaction(e.g.,Lawler,1971).ThedevelopmentofthePaySatisfactionQuestionnaire(PSQ)byHeneman&Schwab(1985)ledtoconsiderableinterestinthemeasurementofpaysatisfaction,andresearchonthePSQ-dominatedpaysatisfactionresearchfromthemid-1980stothemid-1990s(Carraher&Buckley,1996;Judge,1993;Judge&Welbourne,1994;Mulvey,Miceli,&Near,1992;Orpen&Bonnici,1987).Furtherevidencehasindicatedthatpaydissatisfactionisrelatedtoreducedlevelsofperformance(e.g.,Bretz&Thomas,1992),aswellastoanumberofindicatorsofwithdrawal,suchaslateness(Koslowsky,Sagie,Krausz,&Singer,1997),turnoverandturnoverintentions(Sturman,Trevor,Boudreau,&Gerhart,2003),absence(Weiner,1980),andtheft(Greenberg,1993).AsHeneman&Judge(2000)concluded,"Researchhasunequivocallyshownthatpaydissatisfactioncanhaveimportantandundesirableimpactsonnumerousemployeeoutcomes,"(p.85).Tominimizeturnover,retainthemosthighlyskilledemployees,andimproveemployees'contributionstotheorganization,itisimportantthatemployersunderstandhowbesttopaytheiremployeesinordertooptimallysatisfyandmotivatethem(Lawler,2003&2005).Sinceagoodworkerwilldefinewhatheorsheisworthandwillgowhereheorshewillgetpaidthatamount,managementcansetupthepaysystemtoattractthebestworkersandcausethoseworkerstobehighlymotivatedaswellashighlyproductive(Sturman,Cheramie,&Cashen,2005).Animportantaspectofdesigningasuccessfulpaysystemisdeterminingtheappropriatecriteriatouseln1997,AminuMammanstudiedAustralianindustrybyconductingresearchthatexploredemployees’attitudestowardsomeofthekeycriteriathatusuallydeterminespay.Forhissamplingframe,Mammans(1997)researchprovedconclusivelythatanemployee'choiceofpaycriteriaisafunctionoffactorssuchaseducationandage.In1999,JamesMirabellaexpandedoMammansresearchbystudyingAmericanemployees,andhisresearchconfirmedMammansconclusionsoutsidetheboundariesofAustralia.ThisresearchstudyproposestofurtherinvestigatethechoiceofpaycriteriabyAmericanemployeesinthe21stcentury,especiallyconsideringchangesinworkers’attitudesresultingfromeventssincetheturnofthecentury.Sincetheyear2000,numerousevents,suchastheterroristattacksof9/11,thebankruptcyofnumerouslargecorporations,lay-offs,anddownsizinghavecausedconditionsinthebusinessenvironmenttobecomemoreandmoreunstable(Bateman&Snell,2004).Theseunstableandhighlydynamicconditionshaveresultedinnumerouscorporationsseekingthemostoptimalwaytooperate,includinghowtoappropriatelycompensateemployeeswhileminimizingcosts(Lawler,2003&2005).Ifemployerswanttooptimallysatisfyandmotivateemployeeswithapaysystem,managersneedtounderstandtheattitudesandpreferencesofemployeesregardingthecriteriausedtodeterminedpaysystems.StatementoftheProblemNumerouspreviousstudieshaveresearchedtherelationshipbetweenvariouspaysystemsandtherelativeimpactonpaysatisfactionoroverallemployeesatisfaction(Currall,Towler,Judge,&Kohn,2005).Empiricalresearchstudieshavedemonstratedthatmanypeopleprefertouseperformanceasabasisforrewardingothers(Dyer,Schwab,&Theriault,1976;Fossum&Fitch,1985;Heneman,1984;Heneman&Judge,2000).Otherresearchersdemonstratedthatthepreferencetohavepaycontingentonperformanceisaffectedbyseveralfactors,includingemployeeability(Farh,Griffeth&Balkin,1991;Sturmanetal,2005),age(Mamman,1997;Mirabella,1999),education(Mamman,1997;Mirabella,1999),andtenure(Dyer&Theriault,1976;Dyer,Schwab&Theriault,1976;Schwab&Wallace,1974).Manyfactorshavebeenanalyzedtoassesstheirinfluenceonpaysatisfaction,includingqualityofjobperformance(Lawler,1966),gender(Lawler,1971),skilllevelandtraining(Mamman,1990),jobresponsibility(Mamman,1990),mentaleffortandphysicaleffort(Mamman,1990).Despitetheoverwhelmingresearchonpaysystems,oneareathathasgeneratedlimitedresearchhasbeenemployeespreferencesforthecriteriausedinthesepaysystems.InastudyconductedinAustralia,AminuMamman(1997)exploredthesimilaritiesanddifferencesinemployees’attitudestowardsomeofthekeycriteriathatusuallydeterminepay.In1999,JamesMirabellaconfirmedMammansconclusionsregardingemployees’preferencesforpaycriteriaandconcludedthatAmericanandAustralianworkershadsimilarattitudestowardpaysystemdeterminants.Yet,theseresultsmightnotholdtrueforAmericanworkerssincetheturnofthe21stCenturyasaresultofnumerousevents,suchastheterroristattacksofSeptember11,2001andsubsequentterroristactivities,increasedunemployment,andcompaniesrelyingmoreheavilyonconsultantsthanfull-timeemployees.Alloftheseeventshavecreatedanincreasedsenseofuncertaintyinemployeesandinstabilityinthebusinessenvironment(Bateman&Snell,2004;Caudron,2002).Therefore,itimportantformanagerstoemployeepeoplethatenhancethefirmsopportunitiesforachievingcompetitiveadvantage,andakeytorecruitingandretaininggoodemployeesistodesignthemostappropriatepayplan(Sturmanetal.,2005).RecentEventsSignificantlyInfluencingEmployeesSincetheterroristattacksontheWorldTradeCentertowers,therehasbeenashiftinattitudesandbehaviorsofworkersacrossAmerica(Kondrasuk,2004).Theeventsof9/11resultedinnumerousfactorsthathaveincreasedthestresslevelofAmericanworkers(Leonard,2002).Theincreasedlevelofstressexperiencedbyworkersandtheunderstandingthatthereispotentialforactsofterrorisminthefuturehavecausedaparadigmshiftintheattitudesofemployees(Kondrasuk,2004;Leonard,2002).Infact,workershavedemonstratedahigherlevelofworkforcecommitmentsincetheattacks(Caudron,2002).Thisshiftinemployeesattitudesmayincludechangesintheirchoiceofcriteriausedinpaysystems.Inthe1990s,itwascommonplaceforworkerstotakenewpositionswithdifferentorganizationsonafrequentbasis,simplyforincreasedpayand/orbenefits(Bateman&Snell,2004;Lawler,2001;Robbins,2004).Sincetheeventsof9/11,thistrendhasdecreasedandemployeesaremorecommittedtotheirjobandtheorganization(Caudron,2002;Kondrasuk,2004)."Now54percentofworkerssaytheywouldremainwithorganizationsevenifofferedasimilarjobwithslightlyhigherpayelsewhere,'(Caudron,2002,p.26).Theconceptofremainingwithanorganizationratherthanjumpingfromonejobtoanotherisalargeshiftinthemindsetofemployees(Kondrasuk,2004).Changesinthemindsetofemployeesmaybemanifoldandcouldincludethecriteriathatareusedindeterminingtheirpay.Humanresources(HR)managersmustbepreparedtodealwiththesepost-9/11attitudesofemployeesregardingcompensationandperformance(Lincoln,2002).Thus,continuedinvestigationintoemployeepreferencesforpaysystemdeterminantsisanecessityinordertoprovidemuchneededinformationtoHRmanagers.UnemploymentAnotherfactorthathasalsoalteredtheattitudesandbehaviorsofemployeesisunemployment,resultingfromcompaniesgoingbankrupt,downsizing,orreplacingfull-timeemployeeswithconsultants(Bateman&Snell,2004;Lawler,2003).Fromtheyear2000tothemiddleof2005,theunemploymentrateincreased2%(NationalBureauofLabor,2005).Startingin1999,numerouscorporationshavedeclaredbankruptcy,andanincreasednumberoforganizationalrestructuringeffortshavebeenorientedarounddownsizingorhiringconsultantsratherthanfull-timeemployees(Lawler,2003&2005).Thesekindsofcorporateactionshaveadverselyaffectednumerouspeopledirectlyandindirectly(Lawler,2005).Thosedirectlyaffectedhavelosttheirjobsandthoseindirectlyaffectedmayexhibitsurvivorsyndrome.Survivor'ssyndromeoccursasaresultofemployeesstrugglingwithheavierworkloads,wonderingiftheywillloosetheirjobs,tryingtofigureouthowtosurvive,losingcommitmenttothecompanyandfaithintheirbosses,andbecomingnarrow-minded,self-absorbed,andrisk-adverse(Bateman&Snell,2004).Allthesechangeswithintheworkplacehavecreatedasenseoffearanduncertaintyinemployeesthatmayresultinthemviewingcompensationinagreatlydifferentway(Milkovich&Newman,2005).Furthermore,thisshiftinemployeeattitudessincetheyear2000mayplayanimportantroleinthechoiceofpaycriteriapreferredbyworkers,andisthefocusofthisstudy.PreferencesforPaySystemsSomestudiesfocusedonthechoiceofpaycomparisons(Goodman,1974),whileothersfocusedonthethresholdofameaningfulpayincrease(Krefting&Mahoney,1977)orpaysystemadministration(Dyer&Theriault,1976;Lawler,1971),andafewevenfocusedonthecriteriauponwhichrecipientsprefertobepaid(Dyeretal.,1976;Mamman,1997;Mirablla,1999).Severalstudieshaveshownthateventhoughperformancehasbeenshowntohavethelargestimpactonpaysatisfaction,itwasrecognizedthatanumberofnon-performancerelatedfactorsalsoinfluencepaysatisfaction(Fossum&Fitch,1985).Afterdecadesofresearch,expertscontinuetounderscoretheimportanceoflinkingpaysystemstomeetingorganizationalobjectives(Lawler,2000&2004;Milkovich&Newman,2005).Researchershavefoundthatemployeesprefertheirpaytobedeterminedfirstandforemostbyperformance,butthispreferenceiscontingentonmanyfactors(Lawler,1995&2000).Highlyskilledemployeestendtopreferperformance-basedpaymorethanlow-skilledemployees(Lawler1995).Additionally,therearemanynegativesideeffectsofindividualizedpay-for-performanceplans(Cox,2000).Thesenegativeeffectsincluderestrictingoutputduetoperceptionsofpossiblesocialrejectionbypeersandofpossiblelayoffsduetorunningoutofwork(Bateman&Snell,2004;Farr,1976).Lawler(1973)demonstratedthatgroupincentiveplansgenerallyavoidthesesideeffectsandmaydoabetterjoboftyingrewardstoperformance.Finally,employees'preferencesforpaysystemdeterminantswillbeinfluencedbyequitytheory,suchthatsatisfactionwiththepaysystemwillbedeterminedbyacomparisonwiththecompensationreceivedbyothers(Milkovich&Newman,2005;Sweeney&McFarlin,2005).Equitytheoryimpliesthatsatisfactionwithpayiscontingentonemployeesperceptionsregardingthefairnessoftheircompensationincomparisontotheirrole/positionintheorganizationandthatofothersintheorganization(Lawler,2000).Therefore,choiceofpaysystemsbyemployeesisdependentontheirpreferencesforthecriteriausedtodeterminepayandtheirperceptionsofthepaysystem?hepaydeterminantspreferredbyvariousemployeeswillvarywiththeirbackgrounds(Mamman,1997;Milkovich&Newman,2005),andthisfactneedstobeincorporatedintopaysystems.ConclusionsonPaySystemChoicesUtilizingavoluntarychoiceofpayplansbindsemployeestotheirchoicesandresultsinacommitmenttotheorganization(Curralletal.,2005;Lawler,2003).Studentsubjectsselectedrewardschemesbasedontheirpriorperformance,eventhoughnoneofthesubjectswerepaidonperformance(Chow,1983).Asmanystudieshaveshown,allowingindividualstochoosetheirpayplansprobablywillincreasethelikelihoodthattheyattainthegoalsthatareneededtogetthepay(Lawler,2000&2003).Takeninitsentirety,researchindicatesthatindividualswillfollowVroom'sexpectancytheoryandmaximizeexpectedrewardsbyrationallychoosingamongalternatives(Vroom,1964).Furthermore,whenfacedwithadecisiontochooseamongdifferentrewardplans,itisanticipatedthatindividualswillchoosethealternativethatyieldsmaximumexpectedrewardsorminimumexpectedcosts(Houseetal.,1974).Thus,employeeswithhighself-perceivedabilitylevelswouldbeexpectedtopreferplansthatdistributerewardsbasedonperformance,whileemployeeswithlowself-perceivedabilitywouldbeexpectedtochoosetime-basedrewardplans(Cox,2000;Farhet.al.,1991;Robbins,2004).中文譯文:員工對薪酬體系標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的偏好：薪酬體系的調(diào)查問題產(chǎn)生的背景隨著二十一世紀(jì)的發(fā)展，組織面臨著充滿激烈競爭的環(huán)境，以及最近發(fā)生的一些事件，如D的失敗，911恐嚇襲擊，使許多公司減小規(guī)模、裁員，或者減少員工補(bǔ)貼。包括時代，舊M,花旗集團(tuán)，美國電話電報公司，柯達(dá)，固特異，?？松?，施樂，天合，通用等（貝特曼和斯內(nèi)爾，2004;勞勒，2005）。因此，保留最好的員工和招到最有潛力的員工，對企業(yè)的生存和成功至關(guān)重要（勞勒，2003和2005）。獎勵機(jī)制有助于實現(xiàn)吸引、激勵和保留員工的策略目的，但是決定員工報酬的因素更為復(fù)雜（貝特曼和斯內(nèi)爾，2004）。最早的生產(chǎn)報酬形式是食物、住宅和安全保障，這些都是生存的關(guān)鍵因素，但是貨幣制度的出現(xiàn)使工資成為最普遍的報酬形式，貨幣成為商品交換的中介。在許多地方，使用經(jīng)濟(jì)激勵來激勵員工非常普遍，也引起了許多預(yù)測和研究（米爾科維奇和紐曼，2005）?？茖W(xué)管理之父泰羅，在一百年前因普及使用金錢作為激勵工具而聞名（貝特曼和斯內(nèi)爾，2004）。許多與使用經(jīng)濟(jì)性刺激來激勵員工的理論都根源于泰羅的科學(xué)管理原理，包括弗洛姆的期望理論，赫茨伯格的雙因素理論，斯金納的增援理論以及亞當(dāng)?shù)墓嚼碚摚▌诶眨?000）。止匕外，許多研究主要集中在績效為基礎(chǔ)的工資，其中最著名的是霍桑試驗。在假定員工的工資與績效掛鉤而導(dǎo)致績效水平提高的基礎(chǔ)上，愛德華進(jìn)一步研究了經(jīng)濟(jì)激勵理論，并指導(dǎo)這一研究來證明當(dāng)員工的工資與績效掛鉤時，績效會更高（凱曼&勞勒，1973）。在過去的四十年里，薪酬滿意度一直成為一個集中的咨詢領(lǐng)域。早期的薪酬滿意度研究集中在滿意度的前身，得出了幾個薪酬滿意度的理論模型（例如，勞勒，1971）。由赫尼曼和施瓦布（1985）進(jìn)行的薪酬滿意度調(diào)查問卷（PSQ）的發(fā)展，引發(fā)了在二十世紀(jì)八十年代中期到九十年代中期對薪酬滿意度衡量的廣泛興趣，以及對薪酬滿意度調(diào)查問卷的研究（卡拉赫和巴克利，1996;賈奇，1993;賈奇和維爾伯恩，1994;毛利，米塞利和利爾，1992;奧彭和邦尼奇，1987）。一些論據(jù)進(jìn)一步表明薪酬不滿與績效水平下降有關(guān)（例如，布雷茨和托馬斯，1992）,也與其他不良行為有關(guān)，如遲到（科斯洛夫斯基，薩希，克勞茲和辛格，1997）,跳槽或者跳槽的意圖（斯特曼，特雷弗，布德羅和格哈特，2003）,缺勤（韋，1980）和盜竊（格林伯格，1993）。正如赫尼曼和賈奇（2000）的結(jié)論，”研究明確地表明工資不滿對員工的成果有著非常重要且不容樂觀影響。”（第85頁）。為了使流失率減少到最小，保留最有技能的員工，以及提高他們對組織的貢獻(xiàn)，雇主必須了解如何最好地支付員工薪酬，來提高他們的滿意度以激勵他們（勞勒，2003和2005）。這一點顯得非常重要。因為一位優(yōu)秀的員工會明白自己的價值，愿意去那些能支付相應(yīng)薪酬的公司，經(jīng)理們可以通過設(shè)置薪酬機(jī)制來吸引最好的員工，使他們得到最好的激勵以達(dá)到最好的生產(chǎn)力（斯特曼，徹米和卡中，2005）。設(shè)計一個成功的薪酬體系的一個重要方面是確定適當(dāng)?shù)氖褂脴?biāo)準(zhǔn)。在1997年，阿米奴用曼研究了通過一項研究分析了澳大利亞的工業(yè)，這些研究用來探索員工對決定薪酬的一些關(guān)鍵標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的態(tài)度。在他的抽樣中，馬曼（1997）的研究表明員工對薪酬標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的選擇受到教育和年齡等因素的影響。1999年，詹姆斯?米拉貝拉通過研究美國的員工拓展了馬曼的研究，他的研究證實了馬曼的結(jié)論不僅局限于澳大利亞。這項研究旨在進(jìn)一步調(diào)查二十一世紀(jì)的美國員工對薪酬標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的選擇，尤其考慮到員工的態(tài)度因世紀(jì)轉(zhuǎn)折時期的一些事件之后而發(fā)生的變化。自2000年以來，一系列事件，如911恐怖襲擊，許多大公司的破產(chǎn)、解雇、裁員等使商業(yè)界的情況越來越不穩(wěn)定（貝特曼和斯內(nèi)爾，2004）。這些不穩(wěn)定且高度靈活的條件使許多公司去尋找更優(yōu)的運作方式，包括如何在最小化成本的同時來適當(dāng)?shù)刂Ц秵T工薪酬（勞勒，2003和2005）。如果老板想用薪酬機(jī)制最好地滿足和激勵員工，那么經(jīng)理們必須了解員工關(guān)于決定薪酬機(jī)制的一些標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的態(tài)度和偏好。問題的陳述以前的許多理論研究了多種薪酬機(jī)制之間的關(guān)系以及他們對薪酬滿意度和全體員工滿意度的影響（科拉耳，陶勒，賈奇和科恩，2005）。經(jīng)驗研究證明了許多人喜歡將績效當(dāng)做獎勵其他人的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（戴爾，施瓦布和塞里奧爾特，1976;福薩姆和菲奇，1985;赫尼曼，1984;赫尼曼和賈奇，2000）。其他研究表明把薪酬取決于績效的偏好受到幾個因素的影響，包括員工的能力（樊景立，格里菲思和巴爾金，1991;斯特曼等人，2005）,年齡（馬曼，1997;米拉貝拉，1999）,教育（馬曼，1997;米拉貝拉，1999）和任期（戴爾和塞里奧爾特，1976;戴爾，施瓦布和塞里奧爾特，1976;施瓦布和華萊士，1974）。許多因素被用來分析以評估他們對薪酬滿意度的影響，這些因素包括工作績效的質(zhì)量（勞勒，1966）,性別（勞勒，1971）,技能水平和培訓(xùn)（馬曼，1990）,工作責(zé)任心（馬曼，1990）以及精神和體力的努力程度（馬曼，1990）。盡管有無數(shù)關(guān)于薪酬機(jī)制的研究，但在員工對薪酬機(jī)制標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的偏好這一領(lǐng)域研究成果很少。1997年，阿米奴用曼在澳大利亞進(jìn)行了一項研究，探索了員工對決定工資的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的態(tài)度的異同。1999年，詹姆斯?米拉貝拉證實了馬曼關(guān)于員工在工資標(biāo)準(zhǔn)方面的偏好是正確的，并且他得出結(jié)論，繼美國和澳大利亞的員工關(guān)于薪酬機(jī)制方面的態(tài)度有許多相似之處。但是，這些結(jié)果可能不再適合美國員工了，因為在二十一世紀(jì)的轉(zhuǎn)折時期，發(fā)生了許多事件，如2001年911和其他許多恐怖事件，不斷增加的失業(yè)，公司更加依賴于臨時工而不是全職工人。這些導(dǎo)致了員工的不確定性和商業(yè)環(huán)境的不穩(wěn)定（貝特曼和斯內(nèi)爾，2004;科德龍，2002）。因此，經(jīng)理們招到那些能提高公司獲得競爭優(yōu)勢的機(jī)會的員工非常重要，招到和保留優(yōu)秀員工的關(guān)鍵是設(shè)計合理的薪酬計劃（斯特曼等人，2005）。近期對員工影響很大的事件自從恐怖分子襲擊了世貿(mào)大樓以后，美國各地工人的態(tài)度和行為都發(fā)生了許多轉(zhuǎn)變（孔德拉蘇克，2004）。911事件的發(fā)生導(dǎo)致了增加美國人壓力的因素（倫納德，2002）。工人壓力的增加以及他們感覺在未來隨時有可能遭受恐怖襲擊，這種心理使員工的態(tài)度發(fā)生了顯著的變化（孔德拉蘇克，2004;倫納德，2002）。實際上，自從襲擊后，工人有了更高的工作動力承諾（科德龍，2002）。員工態(tài)度的這些轉(zhuǎn)變可能包括對工資機(jī)制中所使用的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的選擇。在二十世紀(jì)九十年代，員工在不同的公司間跳槽是非常普遍的事情，只是為了提高薪酬和/或福利（貝特曼和斯內(nèi)爾，2004;勞勒，2001;羅賓斯，2004）。從911事件后，這種趨勢減少，且員工更加忠于他們的工作和公司（科德龍，2002;孔德拉蘇克，2004）?！艾F(xiàn)