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Chapter7:

ProjectQualityManagementChapter7:

ProjectQualityManQualityofInformationTechnologyProjectsManypeoplejokeaboutthepoorqualityofITproductsPeopleseemtoacceptsystemsbeingdownoccasionallyorneedingtoreboottheirPCsTherearemanyexamplesinthenewsaboutqualityproblemsrelatedtoIT(SeeWhatWentWrong?)ButqualityisveryimportantinmanyITprojectsQualityofInformationTechnolWhatIsProjectQualityManagement?TheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO)definesqualityasthetotalityofcharacteristicsofanentitythatbearonitsabilitytosatisfystatedorimpliedneedsOtherexpertsdefinequalitybasedonconformancetorequirements:meetingwrittenspecificationsfitnessforuse:ensuringaproductcanbeusedasitwasintendedWhatIsProjectQualityManageProjectQualityManagementProcessesQualityplanning:identifyingwhichqualitystandardsarerelevanttotheprojectandhowtosatisfythemQualityassurance:evaluatingoverallprojectperformancetoensuretheprojectwillsatisfytherelevantqualitystandardsQualitycontrol:monitoringspecificprojectresultstoensurethattheycomplywiththerelevantqualitystandardswhileidentifyingwaystoimproveoverallqualityProjectQualityManagementProModernQualityManagementModernqualitymanagementrequirescustomersatisfactionpreferspreventiontoinspectionrecognizesmanagementresponsibilityforqualityNoteworthyqualityexpertsincludeDeming,Juran,Crosby,Ishikawa,Taguchi,andFeigenbaumModernQualityManagementModerQualityExpertsDemingwasfamousforhisworkinrebuildingJapanandhis14pointsJuranwrotetheQualityControlHandbookand10stepstoqualityimprovementCrosbywroteQualityisFreeandsuggestedthatorganizationsstriveforzerodefectsIshikawadevelopedtheconceptofqualitycirclesandusingfishbonediagramsTaguchidevelopedmethodsforoptimizingtheprocessofengineeringexperimentationFeigenbaumdevelopedtheconceptoftotalqualitycontrolQualityExpertsDemingwasfamoFigure7-1.SampleFishboneorIshikawaDiagramFigure7-1.SampleFishboneorMalcolmBaldrigeAwardand

ISO9000TheMalcolmBaldrigeQualityAwardwasstartedin1987torecognizecompanieswithworld-classqualityISO9000providesminimumrequirementsforanorganizationtomeettheirqualitycertificationstandardsMalcolmBaldrigeAwardand

ISOQualityPlanningItisimportanttodesigninqualityandcommunicateimportantfactorsthatdirectlycontributetomeetingthecustomer’srequirementsDesignofexperimentshelpsidentifywhichvariablehavethemostinfluenceontheoveralloutcomeofaprocessManyscopeaspectsofITprojectsaffectqualitylikefunctionality,features,systemoutputs,performance,reliability,andmaintainabilityQualityPlanningItisimportanQualityAssuranceQualityassuranceincludesalltheactivitiesrelatedtosatisfyingtherelevantqualitystandardsforaprojectAnothergoalofqualityassuranceiscontinuousqualityimprovementBenchmarkingcanbeusedtogenerateideasforqualityimprovementsQualityauditshelpidentifylessonslearnedthatcanimproveperformanceoncurrentorfutureprojectsQualityAssuranceQualityassurQualityControlThemainoutputsofqualitycontrolareacceptancedecisionsreworkprocessadjustmentsSometoolsandtechniquesincludeparetoanalysisstatisticalsamplingqualitycontrolchartstestingQualityControlThemainoutputParetoAnalysisParetoanalysisinvolvesidentifyingthevitalfewcontributorsthataccountforthemostqualityproblemsinasystemAlsocalledthe80-20rule,meaningthat80%ofproblemsareoftendueto20%ofthecausesParetodiagramsarehistogramsthathelpidentifyandprioritizeproblemareasParetoAnalysisParetoanalysisFigure7-2.SampleParetoDiagramFigure7-2.SampleParetoDiagStatisticalSamplingandStandardDeviationStatisticalsamplinginvolveschoosingpartofapopulationofinterestforinspectionThesizeofasampledependsonhowrepresentativeyouwantthesampletobeSamplesizeformula:Samplesize=.25X(certaintyFactor/acceptableerror)2StatisticalSamplingandStandTable7-1.CommonlyUsedCertaintyFactors95%certainty:Samplesize=0.25X(1.960/.05)2=38490%certainty:Samplesize=0.25X(1.645/.10)2=6880%certainty:Samplesize=0.25X(1.281/.20)2=10Table7-1.CommonlyUsedCertaStandardDeviationStandarddeviationmeasureshowmuchvariationexistsinadistributionofdataAsmallstandarddeviationmeansthatdataclustercloselyaroundthemiddleofadistributionandthereislittlevariabilityamongthedataAnormaldistributionisabell-shapedcurvethatissymmetricalaboutthemeanoraveragevalueofapopulationStandardDeviationStandarddevFigure7-3.NormalDistributionandStandardDeviationFigure7-3.NormalDistributioTable7-2.SigmaandDefectiveUnitsNote:“Sixsigma”oftenrefersto+/-3sigma,meaning2.7milliondefectsperbillionunitsproduced,or2.7defectspermillion.Table7-2.SigmaandDefectiveQualityControlCharts,SixSigma,andtheSevenRunRuleAcontrolchartisagraphicdisplayofdatathatillustratestheresultsofaprocessovertime.IthelpspreventdefectsandallowsyoutodeterminewhetheraprocessisincontroloroutofcontrolOperatingatahighersigmavalue,like6sigma,meanstheproducttoleranceorcontrollimitshavelessvariabilityThesevenrunrulestatesthatifsevendatapointsinarowareallbelowthemean,above,themean,orincreasingordecreasing,thentheprocessneedstobeexaminedfornon-randomproblemsQualityControlCharts,SixSiFigure7-4.SampleQualityControlChartFigure7-4.SampleQualityConFigure7-5.ReducingDefectswithSixSigmaFigure7-5.ReducingDefectswTestingManyITprofessionalsthinkoftestingasastagethatcomesneartheendofITproductdevelopmentTestingshouldbedoneduringalmosteveryphaseoftheITproductdevelopmentlifecycleTestingManyITprofessionalstFigure7-6.TestingTasksintheSoftwareDevelopmentLifeCycleFigure7-6.TestingTasksintTypesofTestsAunittestisdonetotesteachindividualcomponent(oftenaprogram)toensureitisasdefectfreeaspossibleIntegrationtestingoccursbetweenunitandsystemtestingtotestfunctionallygroupedcomponentsSystemtestingteststheentiresystemasoneentityUseracceptancetestingisanindependenttestperformedbytheenduserpriortoacceptingthedeliveredsystemTypesofTestsAunittestisdFigure7-7.GanttChartforBuildingTestingintoaSystemsDevelopmentProjectPlanProject98fileFigure7-7.GanttChartforBuImprovingInformationTechnologyProjectQualitySeveralsuggestionsforimprovingqualityforITprojectsincludeLeadershipthatpromotesqualityUnderstandingthecostofqualityFocusingonorganizationalinfluencesandworkplacefactorsthataffectqualityFollowingmaturitymodelstoimprovequalityImprovingInformationTechnoloLeadership“Itismostimportantthattopmanagementbequality-minded.Intheabsenceofsinceremanifestationofinterestatthetop,littlewillhappenbelow.”(Juran,1945)Alargepercentageofqualityproblemsareassociatedwithmanagement,nottechnicalissuesLeadership“ItismostimportanTheCostofQualityThecostofqualityisthecostofconformanceordeliveringproductsthatmeetrequirementsandfitnessforusethecostofnonconformanceortakingresponsibilityforfailuresornotmeetingqualityexpectationsTheCostofQualityThecostofTable7-3.CostsPerHourofDowntimeCausedbySoftwareDefectsTable7-3.CostsPerHourofDFiveCostCategoriesRelatedtoQualityPreventioncost:thecostofplanningandexecutingaprojectsoitiserror-freeorwithinanacceptableerrorrangeAppraisalcost:thecostofevaluatingprocessesandtheiroutputstoensurequalityInternalfailurecost:costincurredtocorrectanidentifieddefectbeforethecustomerreceivestheproductExternalfailurecost:costthatrelatestoallerrorsnotdetectedandcorrectedbeforedeliverytothecustomerMeasurementandtestequipmentcosts:capitalcostofequipmentusedtoperformpreventionandappraisalactivitiesFiveCostCategoriesRelatedtOrganizationInfluences,WorkplaceFactors,andQualityStudybyDeMarcoandListershowedthatorganizationalissueshadamuchgreaterinfluenceonprogrammerproductivitythanthetechnicalenvironmentorprogramminglanguagesProgrammerproductivityvariedbyafactorofonetotenacrossorganizations,butonlyby21%withinthesameorganizationStudyfoundnocorrelationbetweenproductivityandprogramminglanguage,yearsofexperience,orsalaryAdedicatedworkspaceandaquietworkenvironmentwerekeyfactorstoimprovingprogrammerproductivityOrganizationInfluences,WorkpMaturityModelsMaturitymodelsareframeworksforhelpingorganizationimprovetheirprocessesandsystemsSoftwareQualityFunctionDeploymentModelfocusesondefininguserrequirementsandplanningsoftwareprojectsTheSoftwareEngineeringInstitute’sCapabilityMaturityModelprovidesagenericpathtoprocessimprovementforsoftwaredevelopmentSeveralgroupsareworkingonprojectmanagementmaturitymodelsMaturityModelsMaturitymodelsProjectManagementMaturityModel1.Ad-Hoc:Theprojectmanagementprocessisdescribedasdisorganized,andoccasionallyevenchaotic.Theorganizationhasnotdefinedsystemsandprocesses,andprojectsuccessdependsonindividualeffort.Therearechroniccostandscheduleproblems.2.Abbreviated:Therearesomeprojectmanagementprocessesandsystemsinplacetotrackcost,schedule,andscope.Projectsuccessislargelyunpredictableandcostandscheduleproblemsarecommon.3.Organized:Therearestandardized,documentedprojectmanagementprocessesandsystemsthatareintegratedintotherestoftheorganization.Projectsuccessismorepredictable,andcostandscheduleperformanceisimproved.4.Managed:Managementcollectsandusesdetailedmeasuresoftheeffectivenessofprojectmanagement.Projectsuccessismoreuniform,andcostandscheduleperformanceconformstoplan.5.Adaptive:Feedbackfromtheprojectmanagementprocessandfrompilotinginnovativeideasandtechnologiesenablescontinuousimprovement.Projectsuccessisthenorm,andcostandscheduleperformanceiscontinuouslyimproving.ProjectManagementMaturityMoChapter7:

ProjectQualityManagementChapter7:

ProjectQualityManQualityofInformationTechnologyProjectsManypeoplejokeaboutthepoorqualityofITproductsPeopleseemtoacceptsystemsbeingdownoccasionallyorneedingtoreboottheirPCsTherearemanyexamplesinthenewsaboutqualityproblemsrelatedtoIT(SeeWhatWentWrong?)ButqualityisveryimportantinmanyITprojectsQualityofInformationTechnolWhatIsProjectQualityManagement?TheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO)definesqualityasthetotalityofcharacteristicsofanentitythatbearonitsabilitytosatisfystatedorimpliedneedsOtherexpertsdefinequalitybasedonconformancetorequirements:meetingwrittenspecificationsfitnessforuse:ensuringaproductcanbeusedasitwasintendedWhatIsProjectQualityManageProjectQualityManagementProcessesQualityplanning:identifyingwhichqualitystandardsarerelevanttotheprojectandhowtosatisfythemQualityassurance:evaluatingoverallprojectperformancetoensuretheprojectwillsatisfytherelevantqualitystandardsQualitycontrol:monitoringspecificprojectresultstoensurethattheycomplywiththerelevantqualitystandardswhileidentifyingwaystoimproveoverallqualityProjectQualityManagementProModernQualityManagementModernqualitymanagementrequirescustomersatisfactionpreferspreventiontoinspectionrecognizesmanagementresponsibilityforqualityNoteworthyqualityexpertsincludeDeming,Juran,Crosby,Ishikawa,Taguchi,andFeigenbaumModernQualityManagementModerQualityExpertsDemingwasfamousforhisworkinrebuildingJapanandhis14pointsJuranwrotetheQualityControlHandbookand10stepstoqualityimprovementCrosbywroteQualityisFreeandsuggestedthatorganizationsstriveforzerodefectsIshikawadevelopedtheconceptofqualitycirclesandusingfishbonediagramsTaguchidevelopedmethodsforoptimizingtheprocessofengineeringexperimentationFeigenbaumdevelopedtheconceptoftotalqualitycontrolQualityExpertsDemingwasfamoFigure7-1.SampleFishboneorIshikawaDiagramFigure7-1.SampleFishboneorMalcolmBaldrigeAwardand

ISO9000TheMalcolmBaldrigeQualityAwardwasstartedin1987torecognizecompanieswithworld-classqualityISO9000providesminimumrequirementsforanorganizationtomeettheirqualitycertificationstandardsMalcolmBaldrigeAwardand

ISOQualityPlanningItisimportanttodesigninqualityandcommunicateimportantfactorsthatdirectlycontributetomeetingthecustomer’srequirementsDesignofexperimentshelpsidentifywhichvariablehavethemostinfluenceontheoveralloutcomeofaprocessManyscopeaspectsofITprojectsaffectqualitylikefunctionality,features,systemoutputs,performance,reliability,andmaintainabilityQualityPlanningItisimportanQualityAssuranceQualityassuranceincludesalltheactivitiesrelatedtosatisfyingtherelevantqualitystandardsforaprojectAnothergoalofqualityassuranceiscontinuousqualityimprovementBenchmarkingcanbeusedtogenerateideasforqualityimprovementsQualityauditshelpidentifylessonslearnedthatcanimproveperformanceoncurrentorfutureprojectsQualityAssuranceQualityassurQualityControlThemainoutputsofqualitycontrolareacceptancedecisionsreworkprocessadjustmentsSometoolsandtechniquesincludeparetoanalysisstatisticalsamplingqualitycontrolchartstestingQualityControlThemainoutputParetoAnalysisParetoanalysisinvolvesidentifyingthevitalfewcontributorsthataccountforthemostqualityproblemsinasystemAlsocalledthe80-20rule,meaningthat80%ofproblemsareoftendueto20%ofthecausesParetodiagramsarehistogramsthathelpidentifyandprioritizeproblemareasParetoAnalysisParetoanalysisFigure7-2.SampleParetoDiagramFigure7-2.SampleParetoDiagStatisticalSamplingandStandardDeviationStatisticalsamplinginvolveschoosingpartofapopulationofinterestforinspectionThesizeofasampledependsonhowrepresentativeyouwantthesampletobeSamplesizeformula:Samplesize=.25X(certaintyFactor/acceptableerror)2StatisticalSamplingandStandTable7-1.CommonlyUsedCertaintyFactors95%certainty:Samplesize=0.25X(1.960/.05)2=38490%certainty:Samplesize=0.25X(1.645/.10)2=6880%certainty:Samplesize=0.25X(1.281/.20)2=10Table7-1.CommonlyUsedCertaStandardDeviationStandarddeviationmeasureshowmuchvariationexistsinadistributionofdataAsmallstandarddeviationmeansthatdataclustercloselyaroundthemiddleofadistributionandthereislittlevariabilityamongthedataAnormaldistributionisabell-shapedcurvethatissymmetricalaboutthemeanoraveragevalueofapopulationStandardDeviationStandarddevFigure7-3.NormalDistributionandStandardDeviationFigure7-3.NormalDistributioTable7-2.SigmaandDefectiveUnitsNote:“Sixsigma”oftenrefersto+/-3sigma,meaning2.7milliondefectsperbillionunitsproduced,or2.7defectspermillion.Table7-2.SigmaandDefectiveQualityControlCharts,SixSigma,andtheSevenRunRuleAcontrolchartisagraphicdisplayofdatathatillustratestheresultsofaprocessovertime.IthelpspreventdefectsandallowsyoutodeterminewhetheraprocessisincontroloroutofcontrolOperatingatahighersigmavalue,like6sigma,meanstheproducttoleranceorcontrollimitshavelessvariabilityThesevenrunrulestatesthatifsevendatapointsinarowareallbelowthemean,above,themean,orincreasingordecreasing,thentheprocessneedstobeexaminedfornon-randomproblemsQualityControlCharts,SixSiFigure7-4.SampleQualityControlChartFigure7-4.SampleQualityConFigure7-5.ReducingDefectswithSixSigmaFigure7-5.ReducingDefectswTestingManyITprofessionalsthinkoftestingasastagethatcomesneartheendofITproductdevelopmentTestingshouldbedoneduringalmosteveryphaseoftheITproductdevelopmentlifecycleTestingManyITprofessionalstFigure7-6.TestingTasksintheSoftwareDevelopmentLifeCycleFigure7-6.TestingTasksintTypesofTestsAunittestisdonetotesteachindividualcomponent(oftenaprogram)toensureitisasdefectfreeaspossibleIntegrationtestingoccursbetweenunitandsystemtestingtotestfunctionallygroupedcomponentsSystemtestingteststheentiresystemasoneentityUseracceptancetestingisanindependenttestperformedbytheenduserpriortoacceptingthedeliveredsystemTypesofTestsAunittestisdFigure7-7.GanttChartforBuildingTestingintoaSystemsDevelopmentProjectPlanProject98fileFigure7-7.GanttChartforBuImprovingInformationTechnologyProjectQualitySeveralsuggestionsforimprovingqualityforITprojectsincludeLeadershipthatpromotesqualityUnderstandingthecostofqualityFocusingonorganizationalinfluencesandworkplacefactorsthataffectqualityFollowingmaturitymodelstoimprovequalityImprovingInformationTechnoloLeadership“Itismostimportantthattopmanagementbequality-minded.Intheabsenceofsinceremanifestationofinterestatthetop,littlewillhappenbelow.”(Juran,1945)Alargepercentageofqualityproblemsareassociatedwithmanagement,nottechnicalissuesLeadership“ItismostimportanTheCostofQualityThecostofqualityisthecostofconformanceordeliveringproductsthatmeetrequirementsandfitnessforusethecostofnonconformanceortakingresponsibilityforfailuresornotmeetingqualityexpectationsTheCostofQualityThecostofTable7-3.CostsPerHourofDowntimeCausedbySoftwareDefectsTable7-3.CostsPerHourofDFiveCostCategoriesRelatedtoQualityPreventioncost:thecostofplanningandexecutingaprojectsoitiserror-freeorwithinanacceptableerrorrangeAppraisalcost:thecostofevaluatingprocessesandtheiroutputstoensurequalityInternalfailurecost:costincurredtocorrectanidentifieddefectbeforethecustomerreceivestheproductExternalfailurecost:costthatrelatestoallerrorsnotdetectedandcorrectedbeforedeliverytothecustomerMeasurementandtestequipmentcosts:capitalcostofequipmentusedtoperformpreventionandappraisalactivitiesFiveCostCategoriesRelatedtOrganizationInfluences,WorkplaceFactors,andQualityStudybyDeMarcoandListershowedthato

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