上海大學(xué)研究生網(wǎng)絡(luò)閱讀題庫(含答案)

PAGEPAGE70課文閱讀題庫UNITONETheMagicofLanguageThemagicalinfluenceoflanguageisathemewhichreverberatesthroughouttheliteraturesandlegendsoftheworld.Language,especiallyinitswrittenform,isthoughttocontainspecialpowers,whichonlytheinitiatedareallowedtounderstandorcontrol.Thebeliefsareoftenlinkedtoamythaboutthedivineoriginsoflanguage,buttheyextendbeyondthis,toinfluencereligiousactivitiesofallkinds,andtoreflectawidespreadprimitivesuperstitionaboutobjectsandeventswhichhaveasymbolicmeaninganduse.Thebeliefthatwordscontrolobjects,people,andspiritscanbeseenintheuseofmagicalformulae,incantations,litaniesofnames,andmanyotherritesinblackandwhitemagicandinorganizedreligion.Thelanguageisthoughttobeabletocuresickness,keepevilaway,bringgoodtooneselfandharmtoanenemy.Suchlanguageusuallyhastobeusedwithgreatexactitude,ifaneffectistobeobtained:meticulousattentionispaidtopronunciation,phraseology,andverbaltradition.Thereoftenhastobeagreatdealofrepetition,inordertointensifythepowerofthewords.Thelanguage,however,doesnothavetobeintelligibletohaveitseffect:manymagicalformulaearemeaninglesstothosewhousethem,butthereisstillgreatbeliefintheirefficacy.Casesoflinguisticsuperstitionabound.Toprimitivepeoples,thewrittenlanguagemustappeartobeomniscient,whenencounteredforthefirsttime.Severalstoriestellofilliteratepeoplestealinganobjectfromaparcel,andbeingfoundoutwhentheydeliveredthemessagewhichaccompaniedit.Thewriting,itwouldseem,hadavoiceofitsown—orperhapsagodlivedintheletters.Suchideasarefoundthroughouthistory.Thesearchformysticalmeaninginalphabeticscriptcanbeseenintheuseofruniccharms,orinthesystems,stillinuse,whichrelateletterstonumbers.Atanotherlevel,themystiqueoflanguageissomethingwhichweencounterthroughoutmodernsociety,especiallyinthefieldofadvertising.Conquerors,too,wellknowthepowerthatexistsinwords.Napoleon,itissaid,preferrednewspaperstobattalions.Andwhatbetterwayistheretoremoveanation’sinfluencethantoburnitswritings?CortezdidthistotheAztecsin1520;andtheNazisandAlliesdidittoeachotherinWorldWarII.VerbalTaboosThewordtaboohasbeenborrowedfromTongan,whereitmeans‘holy’or‘untouchable’.Taboosexistinallknowncultures,referringtocertainacts,objects,orrelationshipswhichsocietywishestoavoid—andthustothelanguageusedtotalkaboutthem.Verbaltaboosaregenerallyrelatedtosex,thesupernatural,excretion,anddeath,butquiteoftentheyextendtootheraspectsofdomesticandsociallife.Forexample,certainanimalsmaybeconsideredtaboo:theZu?iofNewMexicoprohibittheuseofthewordtakka(‘frogs’)duringceremonies;untilrecently,manysouthernAmericansavoidedthewordbullinpolitespeech,replacingitbyaeuphemism,suchashe-cowormalebeasts;inLappishandYakuts,theoriginalnamefrobearisreplacedbysuchphrasesasourlordorgoodfather,andwolves,weasels,rats,lice,snake,andmanyotheranimalshavebeengivenname-taboosbyvariouscultures.Evenpeoplecanbeaffected:certainmembersofthefamilyareconsideredtabooamongAustralianaborigines;eitheraspeciallanguagehastobeusedtothem,ortheyarenotdirectlyaddressedatall.Theuseofataboowordcanleadtoavarietyofsayings,practices,andresponses.Thementionofadeviloruncleanspiritcanevokeaverbalorphysicalreaction,suchasadivineinvocation,orthesignofthecross.Anobscenitycanbethecauseofshockedrecrimination(‘goandwashyourmouthout’),physicalviolence(especiallyif‘ladies’arepresent),orlegalaction(asinthetrialoverthepublicationoftheunexpurgatedD.H.Lawrence’snovel,LadyChatterley’sLover).Theinfluenceoftaboowordscanevenextendacrosslanguageboundaries.IthasbeennotedthatCreekIndiansavoidtheirnativewordsfor‘earth’and‘meat’becauseoftheirphoneticresemblancetoEnglishtaboowords,whichisthedominantlanguagearoundthem.AsimilarphenomenonhasbeenrecordedwithThailearnersofEnglish,whereEnglishyetcloselyresemblesThaijēd(animpolitewordfor‘tohaveintercourse’).AndChinesepeoplecalledLi(acommonfamilyname)canfindtheirnameasourceofembarrassmentinRangoon,inviewoftheBurmesewordli(‘phallus’).Theusualwayofcopingwithtaboowordsandnotionsistodevelopeuphemismsandcircumlocutions.Hundredsofwordsandphraseshaveemergedtoexpressbasicbiologicalfunctions,andtalkaboutdeathhasitsownlinguisticworld,withitsmorticians,caskets,andinnumerablewaysofdying.Englishexamplesincludetopasson,passover,makeone’sbow,kickthebucket,snuffthecandles,goaloft,andcutthepainter.Frenchhasfermersonparapluie(‘tocloseone’sumbrella’),theindescribablyfinaln’avoirplusmalauxdents(‘tohavenomoretoothache’),andmanymore.ProperNamesTheuseofwordsaspersonallabelsisamatterofparticularsignificance—afactwhichisearlylearnedbychildren,whoareoftenanxioustoconcealtheirownnames,andwhosoeasilyhurt,andarehurt,byname-calling.Manyprimitivepeopledonotliketoheartheirnameused,especiallyinunfavorablecircumstances,fortheybelievethatthewholeoftheirbeingresidesinit,andtheymaytherebyfallundertheinfluenceofothers.ThedangerisevengreaterinsomeAustraliantribes,wherepeoplearegiventwonames—a‘public’name,forgeneraluse,anda‘secret’name,whichisknownonlytoGod,ortotheclosestmembersoftheirgroup.Togettoknowasecretnameistohavetotalpoweroveritsowner.TheTodasofsouthernIndiadislikeutteringtheirownnames,totheextentthat,iftheyareaskedfortheirname,theywillasksomeoneelsetogiveit.TheSakalavasofMadagascardonotcommunicatetheirownname,orthenameoftheirvillage,tostrangers,incasemischievoususeshouldbemadeofit.Infolklore,therearemanyexamplesofforbiddennameswhich,whendiscovered,breaktheevilpoweroftheirowners.Theprocessofpersonalnamingcanevenaffectthewholeofalanguage.Storiesarecommonoftribalchiefswhochangetheirnamewhentheytakeoffice,asaresultofwhichanyeverydaywordswhichresemblethatnamehavetobereplaced,sothatthenamewillnotbeusedininauspiciouscircumstances.Itisreported,forexample,thatwhenQueenRasoherinaoftheAnemerinatribeinMadagascarcametothethrone,thewordsopherina(‘silkworm’)wasforbidden,andreplacedbyzanadandy(‘silk’schild’).Deathcanleadtomajortabooeffectsontheuseofnames.Often,thenamesofthedeadarenottobeuttered—thoughthismaywellbeoutoffearratherthanrespect:whileanameendures,itisbelieved,thedeadpersondoesalso,andthosewhoutterthenamebringtheevilofdeathuponthemselves.Insomecultures(suchasthePolynesian),therefore,whenapersondies,otherpeopleofthesamenamehavetoberenamed,or,ifthenamehappenstocorrespondtoawordinthelanguage,thatwordwouldhavetobechanged.Bycontrast,somecultures(suchastheGreenlandic)placegreatstorebythenamesofdeadpeople,whoarethoughttobeunabletorestinpeace,unlessachildhasbeennamedafterthem.Inyetothers,ifachilddies,thenextbythesamemotherwillbecalledbysomeevilname,toshowthedeathspiritthatthechildisnotworthbotheringabout.Sophisticatedsocietieshavehadtheirsuperstitionstoo.IntheRomanlevies,theauthoritiestookgoodcaretoenrollfirstthosemenwhohadauspiciousnames,suchasVictorandFelix.ThenamesofGreekgodswerecarvedonstoneandsunkinthesea,toguardagainstprofanation.InPlato’sCratylus,debatersworryaboutusingthenamesofgodsasetymologicalexamples,andintheChristianeratherearelongstandingprohibitionsovertakingthenameoftheLord‘invain’.OlderHebrewnamesusuallyhadmeanings,suchasNathaniah(‘Yahwehhasgiven’)orAzzan(‘Strong’).WhenAdrianVIbecamepope,hewasadvisednottoretainhisownnameonthegroundsthatallpopeswhohaddonesohaddiedinthefirstyearoftheirreign.Peopleinthe20thcenturymayfinditeasytodismisssuchattitudes,butthingshavenotgreatlychanged.ItisunlikelythatpopularopinionwouldeverallowanewshiptobenamedTitanic.1.Themagicpoweroflanguagewaslinkedtoreligion.2.Witchesorwizardsoftenusesimpleandconcisewordsinceremonies.3.Inprimitivetimes,peoplebelievedthatwrittenlanguagehadasupernaturalpower.4.Taboosonlyexistintheprimitivetribes.5.Thepersonwhousestabooisdoomedtobepunishedbysupernaturalpower.6.Euphemismsarewordsthatareoftenusedtoreplacethetaboowords.7.Manyprimitivepeopledonotliketobecalledbytheirnames,becausetheyfeartobecontrolledbyothers.8.InsomeAustraliantribespeoplehavetwonames,oneisusedonlyathomeandtheotherisusedinchurches.9.InMadagascarifyouaskthenameofavillage,thevillagersarereadytotellyou.10.InRomanlegions,soldiersweremorelikelytohaveVictorratherthanFelixastheirnames.1.Thistextimpliesthatinancienttimes____.A.peoplehadfoundoutthetruenatureoflanguageB.peoplehadlearnedalotaboutthenatureoflanguageC.peopledidn’tbelievethatlanguagecouldcurethesickD.theliteratepeoplehadahigherstatus2.Thewordreverberateinline1isclosestinmeaningto_______.A.recoilB.repeatedlyappearC.havesoundechoesD.showemphasis3.Incantationsaremorelikelytobeusedin______.A.dailycommunicationsB.formationofmagicalformulaeC.treatmentofthesickD.amusementactivities4.Wordsareoftenrepeatedinceremoniesto_____.A.makepeoplehearclearlyB.enhancethemysteriouseffectC.frightenpeopleD.makepeoplerememberthewords5.Theprimitivepeoplebelievedthatthewrittenlanguage____.A.couldhelpcatchthievesB.appearedtohaveasupernaturalpowerC.wasuselessD.facilitatedcommunications6.Accordingtothetext,Napoleonrealizedthat_______.A.incantationscouldbeusedtofightagainstenemiesB.enemy’snewspapersareveryusefulC.newspaperscouldproduceagreatereffectindefeatingenemiesD.hissoldiersshouldreadnewspapers7.VerbaltaboosareusuallyconnectedtoallthefollowingEXCEPT_____.A.physiologicalphenomenonB.naturalphenomenonbeyondhumanknowledgeC.recreationactivitiesD.someanimals8.Theuseofataboowordcancause________.A.alegalactionB.excoriationC.divineinvocationD.alloftheabove9.TheauthormentionedLadyChatterley’sLovertoshowthatbookswithpornographiccontentsmightleadto______.A.arisinginsalesB.thecuriosityofreadersC.alegalactionD.goodfortune10.ThailearnersofEnglishdon’tliketopronouncethewordyetbecause______.A.inThaiitreferstoagodB.inThaiitreferstobadcommunicationsC.inThaiitisquitesimilartothepronunciationofawordmeaningsexualactivityD.inThaiitmeanstohavemoregirlfriends11.Euphemismsaremadetohelppeople_____.A.understandtaboowordsbetterB.avoidusingtaboowordsC.developmoretaboowordsD.maketaboowordsmoredifficulttounderstand12.InFrenchparapluiemeans______.A.umbrellaB.closeC.deathD.taboo13.Peopledonotliketoutterthenamesofthedeadmostlybecauseof______.A.respectB.fearC.sympathyD.sadness14.Amotheroftenchangesherchildren’snameafterachild’sdeathto_____.A.memorizethedeadoneB.makeherchildrenmorehealthyC.keepawaydeathspiritD.makeherchildrenhappy15.AnewshipisunlikelytobenamedasTitanicbecause________.A.itisthenameofagodB.itremindspeopleofterribledisasterC.thenamewillcauseshipsinkingD.noonewillbuyitUNITTWOTheAgeofGlobalityBigisin,and"verybig"isveryin.Barelyaweekgoesbywithoutanotherlargeandoftenastonishingmerger.ThereishardlytimetorecoverfromCitibankandTravelers,withitsfrontalchallengetoNewDealbankingrules,beforeDaimler-BenzandChryslertaketotheroad,shakingtheautomotiveandfinancialworld.Inbetween,acoupleofhugebanksgettogether,andGermany'sdominantpublishersweepsintoacquireperhapsthemostfamousnameinAmericanbooks.Whatseemedtobethemegamergersofyesteryearbegintolookmorelikeminis.Thescaleandaudacityofthesecombinationsareimpressive,ofcourse.Buttheyalsomakepeoplevaguelyuneasy.Arethesecombinationsbecomingtoopowerful,toodominant—simplytoobig?Thecross-bordermergersprovokeadeeperanxiety:willthetidalwaveoftransactionswashawaynationalcharacter?Thequestionisparticularlypointedfor"DaimlerChrysler."Afterall,Chryslerwasenoughofanationalchampiontobebailedoutbythefederalgovernmentin1978;andsomehowitseemedaltogetherfittingthatrescuer-in-chiefLeeIacoccawouldalsotakeontheprojectofrefurbishinganothernationalicon,theStatueofLiberty.Foritspart,Daimler-BenzistheveryepitomeofGermanengineeringprowessanditsMercedescarstheembodimentofprestigeonwheels.The$38billionproposedcombinationunderlinesamomentousfact:theworldisenteringanewtypeofcapitalism.KarlOtoo-Pohl,theformerheadoftheGermanBundesbank,callsit"theeraofverybigcompanies."Andthoseverybigcompanies,inturn,reflectthefactthattheworldeconomyisundergoingfundamentalchange.Forseveralyearsnow,"globalization"hasbeenthemantrafortheexpansionofinternationaltradeandforeigninvestmentandtheintegrationofmarkets.Butwearenowbeginningtoseearealitybeyondglobalization—theworldof"globality."Thisisnotsomuchaprocessasacondition,aworldeconomyinwhichtraditionalandfamiliarboundariesarebeingsurmountedormadeirrelevant.Companiesandinvestorsoperateina24-hourworld.Currencytradersseethesameinformationatthesametime,andcanactonitsimultaneously,wheretheyareinSingapore,LondonorNewYork(assumingonlythattheyareallawakeatthesametime).Billionsofdollarsmoveatthepushofabutton.Globalbrandingisthegreatgame.WorkisnetworkedamongNorthAmerica,EuropeandAsiaviacomputer.Andeventheveryideaofacorporateheadquartersisbeginningtobecomeametaphysicalconcept;increasingly,thecorridorsinwhichmanagersrunintoeachotherarenotphysicalbutelectronic.Theforcescreatingthisnewglobalityaretheveryimperativesthataredrivingthemergers.Oneisthedemandbymoneymangers—themselvescompetingtoretainandattractassets—forquarterlyperformanceandearningsgrowththatwillpropelstockpricesupward.Itisthey,ultimately,whoarecallingthetunethesedays.OutsidetheUnitedStatesandBritain,thishasbecomeknownasthe"Anglo-Saxonmodelofshareholdervalue.”Daimler'spathtothealtarbeganfiveyearsago,whenitmadethecrucialdecisiontoputitselfundertheswayofthe"Anglo-Saxons"bylistingitselfontheNewYorkStockExchange.Todoso,itbegantouseU.Saccountingstandardsthatrevealedthat,contrarytoitsGermanaccountants,itwasn'tdoingverywellatthetime.Sincethen,Daimlerhasremadeitselffromaclumsyconglomerateintoafirmfocusedsolelyontheautomotiveindustry.ItsfurtherquestforshareholdervaluehasnowledittoChrysler.AndthemuchhigherstockpricewithwhichithasbeenrewardedforitsconversiontotheAnglo-Saxonfaithprovidesthecurrencyitisusingtopayforthedeal.Theseconddriverisinthemarketplaceitself.Thebordersthatconstrainedcommerce—butalsoprotectedcompaniesfromthefullbruntofcompetition—areeroding.Governmentsareretreatingfromthecontrolofthecommandingheightsoftheireconomies:theyareprivatizingandderegulating.Barrierstotradeandinvestmentarecomingdownrapidly.Ever-cheapercommunicationsandever-fastercomputers,alongwiththeInternet,arefacilitatingtheflowofgoodsandservices,aswellasknowledgeandinformation.Increasingly,companiesareintegratingtheirglobalstrategieswithglobalcapitalmarkets.Allthisgreatlywidensopportunities.Italsogreatlyintensifiescompetition.This—alongwiththedemandsofinvestors—meansthatpressuresforperformancewillbecomeevermorerelentless.Theresultisthepropensitytomerge—inordertoimprovecorporateperformance,protectandenhancethecompany'scompetitiveposition,buildandprotectbroadlybasedbrandsandgainalltheadvantagesofscaleinwidermarkets.ForDaimler-BenzandChrysler,themergerisaboutassemblingtherightpartstowinintheglobalautomotivemarket.Thisisamergerdrivenbyindustriallogicandgrowthstrategy,ratherthanbythecost-cuttingthatoftenunderpinsmergers.ChryslerisbasicallyaNorthAmericancompany,stronginlower-pricedcars,verystronginsportutilityvehicles,butweakinternationally.Daimler'sMercedesmakesitpre-eminentintheupperpartoftheautomotivemarket—butnotintheUniteStates.Onitsown,Chryslerhaslittlehopeofbuildingitsnon-U.S.franchise,whileDaimlersuffersfrombeingaminorplayerintheinnovative—andhuge—U.S.market.NeitherisstronginAsia.Together,theybecomeafull-rangeautocompany,capableofcompetinginalmosteveryarena,equippedtodeployhugecashflowandtechnologyaroundtheworld.Thewaythedealisbeingdoneisalsonoteworthy,underlininghowtheworld'scapitalmarketsarebeingintegrated.Chryslershareholdersarenotgoingtoreceivecash;theyaregoingtoendupwithsharesintheGermancompany.Fiveyearsago,suchafinancialstructurewouldhavebeen,atbest,mostimprobableandalmostcertainlyunacceptabletoinvestors.Puttingadeallikethistogetherisneverthelessanimmenseundertaking.Gettingitclosedismorethanchallenging.Butthehardestpartwillbemakingitwork.Attheoutsetofmergers,thetendencyistodownplaythedifferencesinstyle,corporate,valuesandnationalcharacter.Buthistoryindicatesthatthosedifferencesoftenturnouttobemoreproblematicthaninitiallyanticipated.Evenwiththebestofintentions—andthemostattractiveincentives—friction,attheveryleast,isinevitable,andmanagingsuchfrictionisamajortaskOneoftheproblemsofthenewglobalityisthatitencouragesscaleandyetatthesametimerequiresgreateremphasisonmanagerialcreativity,entrepreneurialvaluesandinitiativesandresponsivenesstothemarket.Surelyoneofthemostimportantchallengesforthenewcompanywillbetoavoidsquelchingthosecharacteristicsinthecourseofintegratingthetwooperations.Thepointistobecomemoreflexible,fast-movingandadaptive,notless.Ahugeriskinthisneweraofmegamergersistobeblindsidedinthequestforglobalscale.Yes,thecompetitiveplayingfieldismuchwiderthaneverbefore.Butthatdoesnotmeanthatnationalvalues,tastesandcharacterhavedisappeared—whetherwithincompaniesthemselvesoramongtheircustomers.Acompany,bigorsmall,thatmissesthatrealityisquitelikelytoproducelessvalue.1.Itisuniversallyacknowledgedthatglobalizationcancontributetotheexpansionofinternationaltradeandforeigninvestmentandtheintegrationofmarkets.2.Oursisanerainwhichbigmeansgood,biggermeansbetter.3.Daimler-BenzandChryslerisacross-bordermerger.Bothproducecarsexclusivelyintheirowncountry.4.E-businessmakesitpossibleforaninternationalcompanytooperatesmoothly.5.IttookadecadeforDaimlerandChryslertointegratewitheachother.6.ChryslerisbasicallyaGermancompany,stronginlower-pricedcars,verystrongonsportutilityvehicles,butweakinternationally.7.DaimlerisaNorthAmericancompany.ItsMercedesmakesitpreeminentintheupperpartoftheautomotivemarket,butnotinEurope.8.Itisofimportanceforamergertopaymoreattentiontomanagerialcreativity,entrepreneurialvaluesandinitiativesandresponsivenesstothemarket,fortheplayingfieldisdifferent.9.Itishardtogetanewmergertowork,fortheexistingfrictionisinevitableandenduring.10.Inordertosolvethosecomplicatedproblemsinthecourseofintegration,weshouldadoptamoreflexible,fast-movingandadaptivepolicy.1.Themainthemeofthispassageis____.A.InternationalbusinessmergershaveenteredaneweraB.TheDaimler-ChryslermergeristhebiggestinhistoryC.TransnationalcompaniesaremoreefficientthandomesticcompaniesD.Theamalgamationofautomobilecompaniesisaninevitabletrend2."Bigisin"means______.A.largethingsaremoreimportantthansmallones.B.bigcarsarebetterthansmallones.C.itisfashionabletoformlargebusinesscompanies.D.smallthingsarealwaysontheoutside.3.Thescaleandaudacityofthesecombinationsareimpressive,ofcourse."Audacity"means____.A.brazennessB.boldnessC.speedinessD.modesty4.Internationalbusinessmergers"makepeoplevaguelyuneasy"because_____.A.theywillleadtopriceincreases.B.theworldisenteringanewtypeofcapitalism.C.theworldeconomyisundergoingfundamentalchange.D.theymaydoawaywithnationalcharacteristics.5.Themetaphortheauthorusedtodescribethemergertrendis_______.A.TheStatueofLiberty.B.Atidalwave.C.Prestigeonwheels.D.Thegreatgame.6.The"globalization"iscalleda"mantra"mainlybecause________.A.itisvaguebutitsoundsimpressive.B.itwascoinedbyLeeIacocca.C.itisaBuddhistterm.D.mantraiseasiertopronouncethanglobalization.7."Callingthetune"means_______.A.goingintothemusicbusiness.B.puttingcassetteplayersinmotorcars.C.exercisingcontrol.D.boostingstockprices.8."Daimler'spathtothealtar"comparesthecompany'smergerprocessto______.A.areligiousconversion.B.weddingpreparations.C.visitingachurch.D.Anglo-Saxonarchitecture.9.AllofthefollowingarefactorsthatfacilitatetheflowofgoodsandservicesEXCEPT______.A.ever-cheapercommunicationsB.theInternetC.ever-fastercomputersD.modernlogistic10.ThebenefitsofamergerarethefollowingEXCEPT___.A.toenhancethecompany'scompetitiveposition.B.toimprovecorporateperformance.C.tobuildandprotectbroadlybasedbrands.D.tocutdownprice.11."Assemblingtherightparts"isanaptdescriptionoftheDaimler-Chryslermergerbecause_____.A.themergerwasdrivenbyindustriallogicandgrowthstrategyB.theyhaveachievedadvantagesofscaleC.themovewasthecorrectcorporatestrategyD.itremindsusthattheyareautomobilecompanies12.Ahugeriskinthisneweraofmegamergersis_______.A.tobeinthequestforglobalscaleB.tobeoptimisticC.tobeblindD.tosticktotheoldtradition13.Thenewglobalityrequiresemphasison_____.A.managerialcreativityB.entrepreneurialvaluesC.initiativesandresponsivenesstothemarketD.alloftheabove14.Inamuchwidercompetitiveplayingfield,weshouldnotneglect______.A.nationalvaluesB.characterC.tastesD.alloftheabove15.Theauthor'sattitudetoglobalityis________.A.optimisticB.cynicalC.contradictoryD.pessimisticUNITTHREECommunicationAcrossCultureAllcommunicationiscultural—itdrawsonwayswehavelearnedtospeakandgivenonverbalmessages.Wedonotalwayscommunicatethesamewayfromdaytoday,sincefactorslikecontext,individualpersonality,andmoodinteractwiththevarietyofculturalinfluenceswehaveinternalized.Communicationisinteractive,soanimportantinfluenceonitseffectivenessisourrelationshipwithothers.Dotheyhearandunderstandwhatwearetryingtosay?Aretheylisteningwell?Arewelisteningwellinresponse?Dotheirresponsesshowthattheyunderstandthewordsandthemeaningsbehindthewordswehavechosen?Isthemoodpositiveandreceptive?Istheretrustbetweenthemandus?Aretheredifferencesthatrelatetoineffectivecommunication,divergentgoalsorinterests,orfundamentallydifferentwaysofseeingtheworld?Theanswerstothesequestionswillgiveussomecluesabouttheeffectivenessofourcommunicationandtheeasewithwhichwemaybeabletomovethroughconflict.Thechallengeisthatevenwithallthegoodwillintheworld,miscommunicationislikelytohappen,especiallywhentherearesignificantculturaldifferencesbetweencommunicators.Miscommunicationmayleadtoconflict,oraggravateconflictthatalreadyexists.Wemake—whetheritiscleartousornot—quitedifferentmeaningoftheworld,ourplacesinit,andourrelationshipswithothers.Timeisoneofthemostcentraldifferencesthatseparateculturesandculturalwaysofdoingthings.IntheWest,timetendstobeseenasquantitative,measuredinunitsthatreflectthemarchofprogress.Itislogical,sequential,andpresent-focused,movingwithincrementalcertaintytowardafuturetheegocannottouchandapastthatisnotapartofnow.NovingercallstheUnitedStatesa"chronocracy,"inwhichthereissuchreverenceforefficiencyandthesuccessofeconomicendeavorsthattheexpression"timeismoney"isfrequentlyheard.Thisapproachtotimeiscalledmonochromic—itisanapproachthatfavorslinearstructureandfocusesononeeventorinteractionatatime.Robert'sRulesofOrder,observedinmanyWesternmeetings,enforceamonochronicideaoftime.IntheEast,timefeelslikeithasunlimitedcontinuity,anunravelingratherthanastrictboundary.Birthanddeatharenotsuchabsoluteendssincetheuniversecontinuesandhumans,thoughchangingform,continueaspartofit.Peoplemayattendtomanythingshappeningatonceinthisapproachtotime,calledpolychronous.Thismaymeanmanyconversationsinamoment(suchasameetinginwhichpeoplespeaksimultaneously,"talkingover"eachotherastheydiscusstheirsubjects),ormanytimesandpeopl