生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)demandcurve

第十八章生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)TheMarketfortheFactorsofProduction1生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)

TheMarketsfortheFactorsofProduction2005年美國(guó)居民的總收入是12萬億美元，人均4萬美元（中國(guó)：18萬億人民幣元，人均1.4萬元）。In2005,thetotalincomeofallU.S.residentswasabout$12trillion,or$40,000percapita.工人以工資和附加福利的形式賺到的收入占其四分之三（中國(guó)：五分之三）。其余以地租、利潤(rùn)和利息的形式歸土地所有者與資本所有者。Workersearnedaboutthree-fourthsofitintheformofwagesandfringebenefits.Therestwenttolandownersandtotheownersofcapitalintheformofrent,profitandinterest.2生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)

TheMarketsfortheFactorsofProduction為什么有的人的收入比別人高？Whydosomepeoplehavehigherincomesthanothers?是什么決定了多少歸工人，多少歸土地所有者，多少又歸資本所有者？Whatdetermineshowmuchgoestoworkers?Tolandowners?Totheownersofcapital?為什么一些工人（或土地所有者、資本所有者）比另一些掙得更高的工資（或租金收入、利潤(rùn)）？Whydosomeworkersearnhigherwagesthanothers,somelandownershigherrentalincomethanothers,andsomecapitalownersgreaterprofitthanothers?答案取決于供給與需求。Theanswershingeonsupplyanddemand.3生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)

TheMarketsfortheFactorsofProductionFirms企業(yè)Households家庭MarketforFactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)MarketforGoodsandServices產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)市場(chǎng)Spending支出Revenue收益Wages,rent,andprofit工資租金與利潤(rùn)Income收入Goods&Servicessold產(chǎn)品與服務(wù)出售Goods&Servicesbought產(chǎn)品與服務(wù)購(gòu)買Labor,land,andcapital勞動(dòng),土地,資本Inputsforproduction生產(chǎn)投入4生產(chǎn)要素

FactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素是用來生產(chǎn)商品和服務(wù)的投入。Factorsofproductionaretheinputsusedtoproducegoodsandservices.勞動(dòng)、土地和資本是三種最重要的生產(chǎn)要素。Labor,landandcapitalarethethreemostimportantfactorsofproduction.5生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)

TheMarketfortheFactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素需求是派生需求。

Thedemandforafactorofproductionisaderiveddemand.企業(yè)對(duì)于生產(chǎn)要素的需求，是從它在其他市場(chǎng)上供給商品的決策中派生出來的。Afirm’sdemandforafactorofproductionisderivedfromitsdecisiontosupplyagoodinanothermarket.6勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)

TheMarketsforLabor勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)，跟經(jīng)濟(jì)中的其他市場(chǎng)一樣，是由供給和需求的力量支配的。Labormarkets,likeothermarketsintheeconomy,aregovernedbytheforcesofsupplyanddemand.7“萬能的”供給與需求TheVersatilityofSupplyandDemand...(a)蘋果市場(chǎng)TheMarketforApples(b)摘蘋果工市場(chǎng)TheMarketforApplePickers蘋果數(shù)量QuantityofApples摘蘋果工數(shù)量QuantityofApplePickersQLPW00蘋果價(jià)格PriceofApples摘蘋果工工資WageofApplePickers需求Demand需求Demand供給Supply供給Supply8勞動(dòng)需求

TheDemandForLabor大多數(shù)勞動(dòng)的使用，不是作為最終產(chǎn)品供消費(fèi)者享受，而是投入其他物品的生產(chǎn)中。Mostlaborservices,ratherthanbeingfinalgoodsreadytobeenjoyedbyconsumers,areinputsintotheproductionofothergoods.9生產(chǎn)函數(shù)和勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量

TheProductionFunctionandTheMarginalProductofLabor生產(chǎn)函數(shù)描述使用的投入量與產(chǎn)品的產(chǎn)出量之間的關(guān)系。Theproductionfunctionillustratestherelationshipbetweenthequantityofinputsusedandthequantityofoutputofagood.10生產(chǎn)函數(shù)TheProductionFunction...00501001502002503003500123456摘蘋果工的的數(shù)量QuantityofApplePickers蘋果數(shù)量QuantityofApples1234511生產(chǎn)函數(shù)和和勞動(dòng)的邊邊際產(chǎn)量TheProductionFunctionandTheMarginalProductofLabor勞動(dòng)的邊際際產(chǎn)量是增增加1單位位勞動(dòng)所得得到的產(chǎn)出出量的增加加。Themarginalproductoflaboristheincreaseintheamountofoutputfromanadditionalunitoflabor.MPL=Q/LMPL=(Q2–Q1)/(L2––L1)12勞動(dòng)的邊際際產(chǎn)量遞減減DiminishingMarginalProductofLabor隨著工人數(shù)數(shù)量增加，，勞動(dòng)的邊邊際產(chǎn)量遞遞減。Asthenumberofworkersincreases,themarginalproductoflabordeclines.隨著工人數(shù)數(shù)量愈來愈愈多，每個(gè)個(gè)增加的工工人對(duì)蘋果果產(chǎn)量的貢貢獻(xiàn)小于前前一個(gè)工人人。Asmoreandmoreworkersarehired,eachadditionalworkercontributeslesstoproductionthanthepriorone.生產(chǎn)函數(shù)隨隨著工人數(shù)數(shù)量的增加加變得越來來越平坦。。Theproductionfunctionbecomesflatterasthenumberofworkersrises.這一性質(zhì)稱為為邊際產(chǎn)量遞減減。Thispropertyiscalleddiminishingmarginalproduct.13勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)值TheValueoftheMarginalProductofLabor邊際產(chǎn)值是投入的邊際際產(chǎn)量乘以產(chǎn)產(chǎn)出的市場(chǎng)價(jià)價(jià)格。Thevalueofthemarginalproductisthemarginalproductoftheinputmultipliedbythemarketpriceoftheoutput.VMPL=MPLXP14勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)值TheValueoftheMarginalProductofLabor勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)值以美元（（或其他貨幣幣單位）來衡衡量。Thevalueofthemarginalproductismeasuredindollars.它隨著工人數(shù)數(shù)量的增加而而減少，因?yàn)闉楫a(chǎn)品的市場(chǎng)場(chǎng)價(jià)格是恒定定的。Itdiminishesasthenumberofworkersrisesbecausethemarketpriceofthegoodisconstant.15邊際產(chǎn)值和勞勞動(dòng)需求TheValueoftheMarginalProductandtheDemandforLabor給定工人的市市場(chǎng)工資，競(jìng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性的、利利潤(rùn)最大化的的企業(yè)雇傭工工人的數(shù)量要要在勞動(dòng)的邊邊際產(chǎn)值等于于工資這一點(diǎn)點(diǎn)上。Giventhemarketwageforlabors,thecompetitive,profit-maximizingfirmhiresworkersuptothepointwherethevalueofmarginalproductoflaborequalsthewage.VM16競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性性企業(yè)業(yè)如何何決定定雇傭傭工人人的數(shù)數(shù)量HowtheCompetitiveFirmDecidesHowMuchLabortoHire勞動(dòng)產(chǎn)出勞動(dòng)的的邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)量勞動(dòng)的的邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)值工資邊際利利潤(rùn)17勞動(dòng)的的邊際際產(chǎn)值值TheValueoftheMarginalProductofLabor...0QuantityofApplePickers0ValueoftheMarginalProductValueofmarginalproduct(demandcurveforlabor)MarketWage市場(chǎng)工資Profit-maximizingQuantity利潤(rùn)最大化數(shù)量邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)值邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)值（勞動(dòng)動(dòng)需求求曲線線）摘蘋果果工數(shù)數(shù)量18邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)值和和勞動(dòng)動(dòng)需求求TheValueoftheMarginalProductandtheDemandforLabor對(duì)于于一一個(gè)個(gè)競(jìng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)爭(zhēng)性性的的、、利利潤(rùn)潤(rùn)最最大大化化的的企企業(yè)業(yè)來來說說，，邊邊際際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)值值曲曲線線就就是是勞動(dòng)動(dòng)需需求求曲曲線線。Thevalue-of-marginal-productcurveisthelabordemandcurveforacompetitive,profit-maximizingfirm.19投入需求和產(chǎn)產(chǎn)出供給：同同一硬幣的兩兩面InputDemandandOutputSupply:

TwoSidesoftheSameCoin一個(gè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性企企業(yè)雇傭越來來越多的勞動(dòng)動(dòng)，一直到邊邊際產(chǎn)值等于于工資那一點(diǎn)點(diǎn)。此時(shí)，它它的產(chǎn)量也就就達(dá)到了價(jià)格格等于邊際成成本的一點(diǎn)。。Whenacompetitivefirmhireslaboruptothepointatwhichthevalueofthemarginalproductequalsthewage,italsoproducesuptothepointatwhichthepriceequalsthemarginalcost.VMPL≡P*MPL=WP=W/MPL≡MC20什么引起勞動(dòng)動(dòng)需求曲線的的移動(dòng)WhatCausestheLaborDemandCurvetoShift?產(chǎn)出價(jià)格OutputPrice技術(shù)變革TechnologicalChange其他要素的供供給SupplyofOtherfactors21技術(shù)變革如何何影響勞動(dòng)需需求？HowTechnologicalChangesAffectLaborDemand?技術(shù)變革通常常增加了勞動(dòng)動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量量，從而增加加了勞動(dòng)需求求。Technologicaladvancetypicallyraisesthemarginalproductoflabor,whichinturnincreasesthedemandforlabor.也有可能技術(shù)術(shù)進(jìn)步減少了了勞動(dòng)需求。。Itisalsopossiblefortechnologicalchangetoreducelabordemand.歷史表明，大大多數(shù)技術(shù)進(jìn)進(jìn)步是增加勞動(dòng)而不是節(jié)約勞動(dòng)的。Historysuggests,however,thatmosttechnologicalprogressislabor-augmentinginsteadoflabor-saving.22勞動(dòng)供給曲線線TheLaborSupplyCurve勞動(dòng)供給曲曲線反映工工人如何根根據(jù)機(jī)會(huì)成成本的變動(dòng)動(dòng)，作出勞勞動(dòng)－閑暇暇的得失交交換的決策策。Thelaborsupplycurvereflectshowworkers’decisionsaboutthelabor-leisuretradeoffrespondtochangesinopportunitycost.向上傾斜的的勞動(dòng)供給給曲線意味味著，工資資上升使工工人增加他他們供給的的勞動(dòng)量。。Anupward-slopinglaborsupplycurvemeansthatanincreaseinthewagesinducesworkerstoincreasethequantityoflabortheysupply.23勞動(dòng)動(dòng)供供給給曲曲線線TheLaborSupplyCurve供給給Supply工資資（（勞勞動(dòng)動(dòng)價(jià)價(jià)格格））Wage(priceoflabor)勞動(dòng)動(dòng)數(shù)數(shù)量量QuantityofLabor024什么么引引起起勞勞動(dòng)動(dòng)供供給給曲曲線線移移動(dòng)動(dòng)WhatCausestheLaborSupplyCurvetoShift?嗜好好變變動(dòng)動(dòng)ChangesinTastes可供供選選擇擇的的機(jī)機(jī)會(huì)會(huì)改改變變ChangesinAlternativeOpportunities移民民Immigration25勞動(dòng)動(dòng)市市場(chǎng)場(chǎng)的的均均衡衡EquilibriumintheLaborMarket工資資調(diào)調(diào)整整使使勞勞動(dòng)動(dòng)的的供供求求平平衡衡。。Thewageadjuststobalancethesupplyanddemandforlabor.工資等等于勞勞動(dòng)的的邊際際產(chǎn)值值。Thewageequalsthevalueofthemarginalproductoflabor.26均衡就業(yè)量Equilibriumemployment,L勞動(dòng)市市場(chǎng)的的均衡衡EquilibriumintheLaborMarket...供給Supply工資（（勞動(dòng)動(dòng)價(jià)格格）Wage(priceoflabor)勞動(dòng)數(shù)數(shù)量QuantityofLabor0需求Demand均衡工資Equilibriumwage,W27勞動(dòng)市市場(chǎng)的的均衡衡EquilibriumintheLaborMarket勞動(dòng)的的供給給和需需求決決定均均衡工工資。。Laborsupplyandlabordemanddeterminetheequilibriumwage.勞動(dòng)供供給或或需求求曲線線的移移動(dòng)導(dǎo)導(dǎo)致均均衡工工資改改變。。Shiftsinthesupplyordemandcurveforlaborcausetheequilibriumwagetochange.28勞動(dòng)供供給的的移動(dòng)動(dòng)AShiftinLaborSupply...Wage(priceoflabor)W10勞動(dòng)數(shù)數(shù)量QuantityofLaborL1供給Supply,S1需求Demand2.…降低工資reducesthewage...3.…以及增加了就業(yè)andraisesemployment.1.勞動(dòng)供給增加Anincreaseinlaborsupply...S2W2L2工資（（勞動(dòng)動(dòng)價(jià)格格）29勞動(dòng)供供給的的移動(dòng)動(dòng)AShiftinLaborSupply勞動(dòng)供供給的的增加加Anincreaseinthesupplyoflabor:導(dǎo)致勞勞動(dòng)過過剩Resultsinasurplusoflabor.對(duì)工資資施加加向下下的壓壓力Putsdownwardpressureonwages.使得企企業(yè)多多雇傭傭工人人變得得有利利可圖圖Makesitprofitableforfirmstohiremoreworkers.導(dǎo)致勞動(dòng)的的邊際產(chǎn)量量下降Resultsindiminishingmarginalproduct.降低了勞動(dòng)動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)值Lowersthevalueofthemarginalproduct.產(chǎn)生了新的的均衡Givesanewequilibrium.30勞動(dòng)需求的的移動(dòng)AShiftinLaborDemand...Wage(priceoflabor)W10QuantityofLaborL1供給Supply需求Demand,D12.…提升工資increasesthewage...3.…以及增加了就業(yè)andincreasesemployment.1.勞動(dòng)需求增加Anincreaseinlabordemand...D2W2L2工資（勞動(dòng)動(dòng)價(jià)格）勞動(dòng)數(shù)量31勞動(dòng)需求的的移動(dòng)ShiftsinLaborDemand勞動(dòng)需求求的增加加Anincreaseinthedemandforlabor:使得企業(yè)業(yè)多雇傭傭工人變變得有利利可圖。。Makesitprofitableforfirmstohiremoreworkers.對(duì)工資產(chǎn)產(chǎn)生向上上的壓力力。Putsupwardpressureonwages.提高了邊邊際產(chǎn)值值。Raisesthevalueofthemarginalproduct.產(chǎn)生了新新的均衡衡。Givesanewequilibrium.32生產(chǎn)率與與工資ProductivityandWages生產(chǎn)率可可以用勞勞動(dòng)的邊邊際產(chǎn)值值來（粗粗略地））衡量。。Productivitycanbemeasured(roughly)bythevalueofmarginalproductoflabor.生產(chǎn)率高高的工人人，得到到的工資資也高。。Highlyproductiveworkersarehighlypaid.33美國(guó)的生生產(chǎn)率與與工資的的增長(zhǎng)ProductivityandWageGrowthintheUnitedStates時(shí)期生產(chǎn)率增增長(zhǎng)率實(shí)際工資資增長(zhǎng)率率34世界各國(guó)國(guó)與地區(qū)區(qū)的生產(chǎn)產(chǎn)率與工工資增長(zhǎng)長(zhǎng)ProductivityandWageGrowtharoundtheWorld35其他生產(chǎn)產(chǎn)要素：：土地和和資本OtherFactorsofProduction:LandandCapital資本指生產(chǎn)中中所用的的設(shè)備與與建筑物物存量。。Capitalreferstothestockofequipmentandstructuresusedforproduction.經(jīng)濟(jì)中的的資本代代表現(xiàn)在在正用于于生產(chǎn)新新物品和和服務(wù)的的、過去去生產(chǎn)的的物品的的積累。。Theeconomy’scapitalrepresentstheaccumulationofgoodsproducedinthepastthatarebeingusedinthepresenttoproducenewgoodsandservices.36土地和資資本的價(jià)價(jià)格PricesofLandandCapital購(gòu)買價(jià)格是一個(gè)人為了了無限期地?fù)頁碛心切┥a(chǎn)產(chǎn)要素而支付付的價(jià)格。Thepurchasepriceiswhatapersonpaystoownafactorofproductionindefinitely.租賃價(jià)格是一個(gè)人為了了在一個(gè)有限限時(shí)期內(nèi)使用用那些生產(chǎn)要要素而支付的的價(jià)格。Therentalpriceiswhatapersonpaystouseafactorofproductionforalimitedperiodoftime.購(gòu)買價(jià)格與租租賃價(jià)格是相相關(guān)的：它取取決于當(dāng)前以以及預(yù)期未來來的租賃價(jià)格格。Thepurchasepriceisrelatedtotherentalprices:Itdependsonthecurrentrentalpriceandtherentalpriceexpectedtoprevailinthefuture.37土地和資本市市場(chǎng)的均衡EquilibriuminMarketsforLandandCapital土地和資本的的租賃價(jià)格是是由供給和需需求決定的。。Therentalpriceoflandandtherentalpriceofcapitalaredeterminedbysupplyanddemand.企業(yè)增加要素素使用量，直直到要素的邊邊際產(chǎn)值等于于要素價(jià)格。。Thefirmincreasesthequantityhireduntilthevalueofthefactor’smarginalproductequalsthefactor’sprice.38土地和資本市市場(chǎng)TheMarketsforLandandCapital...土地?cái)?shù)量QuantityofLand資本數(shù)量QuantityofCapitalQQPP00土地的租賃價(jià)價(jià)格RentalPriceofLand資本的租賃價(jià)價(jià)格RentalPriceofCapital需求Demand需求Demand供給Supply供給Supply(a)土地市場(chǎng)TheMarketforLand(b)資本市場(chǎng)TheMarketforCapital39土地和資本市市場(chǎng)的均衡EquilibriuminMarketsforLandandCapital每個(gè)要素的租租賃價(jià)格必須須等于他們的的邊際產(chǎn)值。。Eachfactor’srentalpricemustequalthevalueoftheirmarginalproduct.勞動(dòng)、土地和和資本各自賺賺到了他們對(duì)對(duì)生產(chǎn)過程邊邊際貢獻(xiàn)的價(jià)價(jià)值。Labor,land,andcapitaleachearnthevalueoftheirmarginalcontributiontotheproductionprocess.此謂新古典分配理理論。Thetheorydevelopedhereiscalledtheneoclassicaltheoryofdistribution.40生產(chǎn)要素之間間的聯(lián)系LinkagesAmongtheFactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素是一一起使用的。。Factorsofproductionareusedtogether.任何一種要素素的邊際產(chǎn)量量取決于可以以得到的所有有要素的數(shù)量量。Themarginalproductofanyonefactordependsonthequantitiesofallfactorsthatareavailable.一種種生生產(chǎn)產(chǎn)要要素素供供給給的的變變化化會(huì)會(huì)改改變變所所有有要要素素的的收收入入。。Achangeinthesupplyofonefactoralterstheearningsofallthefactors.41生產(chǎn)產(chǎn)要要素素之之間間的的聯(lián)聯(lián)系系LinkagesAmongtheFactorsofProduction任何何一一種種要要素素收收入入的的變變化化，，都都可可以以通通過過分分析析某某一一事事件件對(duì)對(duì)其其邊邊際際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)值值的的影影響響來來發(fā)發(fā)現(xiàn)現(xiàn)。。Achangeinearningsofanyfactorcanbefoundbyanalyzingtheimpactoftheeventonthevalueofthemarginalproductofthatfactor.42黑死病病的經(jīng)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)學(xué)TheEconomicsoftheBlackDeath14世紀(jì)的的歐洲洲，鼠鼠疫的的流行行在短短短幾幾年內(nèi)內(nèi)奪去去了大大約三三分之之一人人口的的生命命。Infourteenth-centuryEurope,thebubonicplaguewipedoutaboutone-thirdofthepopulationwithinafewyears.這一被被稱為為黑死死病的的事件件，為為檢驗(yàn)驗(yàn)我們們剛剛剛提出出的要要素市市場(chǎng)理理論提提供了了一個(gè)個(gè)可怕怕的自自然實(shí)實(shí)驗(yàn)。。Thisevent,calledtheBlackDeath,provideagrislynaturalexperimenttotestthetheoryoffactormarketsthatwehavejustdeveloped.43黑死病病的經(jīng)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)學(xué)TheEconomicsoftheBlackDeath勞動(dòng)供供給的的下降降導(dǎo)致致勞動(dòng)動(dòng)的邊邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)量增增加，，這導(dǎo)導(dǎo)致工工資的的上升升。Withasmallersupplyofworkers,themarginalproductoflaborrose,whichraisedwages.由于可可用于于耕種種土地地的工工人少少了，，土地地的邊邊際產(chǎn)產(chǎn)量下下降，，這導(dǎo)導(dǎo)致地地租的的下降降。Withfewerworkersavailabletofarmtheland,themarginalproductoflandfell,whichloweredrents.黑死病病給農(nóng)農(nóng)民階階級(jí)帶帶來了了經(jīng)濟(jì)濟(jì)繁榮榮，而而減少少了地地主階階級(jí)的的收入入。TheBlackDeathledtoeconomicprosperityforthepeasantclassesandreducedincomeforthelandedclasses.44總結(jié)Summary經(jīng)濟(jì)的的收入入是在在生產(chǎn)產(chǎn)要素素市場(chǎng)場(chǎng)上分分配的的。三三種最最重要要的生生產(chǎn)要要素是是勞動(dòng)動(dòng)、土土地和和資本本。Theeconomy’sincomeisdistributedinthemarketsforthefactorsofproduction.Thethreemostimportantfactorsofproductionarelabor,land,andcapital.要素需需求，，例如如勞動(dòng)動(dòng)需求求，是是一種種派生生需求求，