國外社會心理學培訓課件

國外社會心理學TheSelfThinkingAbouttheSelf:PersonalversusSocialIdentitySelf-Esteem:AttitudesTowardtheSelfSocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfTheSelfasTargetofPrejudice2國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelfPersonal-SocialIdentityContinuum—signifiesthetwodistinctwaysthattheselfcanbecategorizedPersonallevelSelfcanbethoughtofasauniqueindividualHowit’sdescribeddependsonintragroupcomparisons.SocialidentitylevelSelfcanbethoughtofasamemberofagroupHowit’sdescribedisaresultofintergroupcomparisons.Situationalfactorsimpacthowpeopledefinethemselves.3國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhoIAmDependsontheSituationPeopleseethemselvesdifferentlydependingonwhichrelationshipsandwhichcontextsareconsidered.Self-Complexity—referstohowtheself-conceptisorganizedHighcomplexity:AspectsoftheselfaredistinctfromoneanotherFailureinonedomainhaslessimpactonone’soverallfeelingsaboutone’sselfLowcomplexity:Aspectsoftheselfoverlapeachother4國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelfCultureaffectshowtheselfisperceived.IndependentSelf-Concept—inindividualisticcultures,peopledevelopaself-conceptasseparatefromorindependentofothers.InterdependentSelf-Concept—incollectivistcultures,peopledevelopaself-conceptintermsofone’sconnectionsorrelationshipswithothers.Groupmembership,likebeingamemberofagendergroup,influenceshowoneseesone’sself.5國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelf6國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhichaspectoftheselfhasinfluencedependsonContextanditsfeaturesthatmakeanaspectoftheselfdistinctiveImportanceoftheaspecttotheselfReferencesotherpeoplemakeaboutone’sself7國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhoIAmDependsonOthers’Treatment

Howpeoplearetreatedbyothersandhowtheybelievetheywillbetreatedinthefutureaffectshowtheythinkaboutthemselves.Peoplemaytrytohideanaspectoftheselfthattheythinkwillresultinrejectionfromothers.Or,theymaychoosetoemphasizethisfeature.8國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelfSelf-Awareness:TerrorManagementSubjectiveSelf-Awareness—thoughttobethefirstleveloftheselftoemergeandistherecognitionthattheselfisseparatefromotherobjectsinone’sphysicalenvironmentObjectiveSelf-Awareness—organism’scapacitytobetheobjectofitsownattention9國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelfSymbolicSelf-Awareness—uniquelyhumancapacitytoformanabstractrepresentationoftheselfthroughlanguageandisconnectedwithknowingthatdeathisinevitableTerrorManagementTheory—humansconfrontexistentialterrorduetotheirawarenessoftheinevitabilityoftheirowndeathPeopleattempttodealwiththisthreattotheselfwhentheirownmortalityissalientSelf-esteemcanactasabufferagainsttheanxietythatisaresultoftheawarenessoftheirowninevitabledeath.10國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelf11國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelfPossibleSelves:TheSelfOverTimePossibleSelf—imageofhowtheselfmightbeinthefutureCouldbeavoidedordesiredCanmotivatepeopletochangebehaviorAwarenessthatoneisfailingtoliveuptoone’sstandardscanresultindistractionasawaytoreduceuncomfortableself-awarenessPeoplemaybeoverlyoptimisticabouttheirabilitytobecometheselfthattheydesire.12國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelfSuccessfulchangeismorelikelywhenfeelingsofself-efficacy,believingthatonecanachieveagoal,

arepresent.Otherchangestotheselfoccurduetochangesinsituationalfactors.Forexample,age,relocation,newjob,andmajorlifeevents13國外社會心理學ThinkingAbouttheSelfWhatareyourthoughts?Whatarefactorsthatinfluencehowpeoplethinkaboutthemselves?Whatarethebenefitsofincreasedself-awareness?Whatarethecostsofbecomingmoreself-aware?14國外社會心理學Self-EsteemRosenberg’s(1965)scaleisthemostcommonmethodtomeasureself-esteem.16國外社會心理學Self-EsteemUnconsciousmeasurementproceduresalsoareusedtomeasureself-esteem.Self-ReferenceEffect—peopleseemtoorientthemselvestowardstimulithatareassociatedwiththeselfandshowpreferencesforobjectsownedbyandreflectiveoftheselfSuggeststhatstrategiestoimproveself-esteemmaybemoresuccessfulifimplementedbelowconsciousawareness17國外社會心理學Self-EsteemSelf-ServingBiasesAboveAverageEffect—tendencyforpeopletoratethemselvesasabovetheaverageonmostpositivesocialattributesPeopledonottendtotakeresponsibilityfornegativeoutcomes,butdosoforpositiveoutcomes.Peoplemaydothisforbothpersonalandgroupoutcomes.CultureaffectslikelihoodthatpeoplewillengageinthisprocessHowever,whenpeopleattributenegativeoutcomestointernalfactorstheyreceivemorepositiveevaluationsfromothersthandopeoplewhoblameexternalcircumstances.18國外社會心理學Self-EsteemIsHighSelf-EsteemAlwaysPositive?Ithasfoundtoberelatedtobullying,narcissism,andinterpersonalaggression.Menwithhighself-esteemratherthanlowself-esteemaremorelikelytocommitactsofviolencetowardthosewhocontesttheirpositiveself-view.

19國外社會心理學Self-EsteemDoGenderDifferencesinSelf-EsteemExist?Womenwhoaredevalued(facegenderdiscrimination)andareawareofthisinequalityhavelowerself-esteemcomparedtoothers.Men’sself-esteemtendstobehigherthanwomen’sself-esteem.Thesedifferencesarelessintheprofessionalclassthaninmiddle-lowerincomeclasses.StrongestgenderdifferencehasbeenobservedamongwhiteNorthAmericansNoreliabledifferencewasfoundamongminorityAmericans20國外社會心理學Self-EsteemWhatareyourthoughts?Whataresuccessfulstrategiesthatpeopleusetomaintaintheiroverallself-esteem?Whyaremembersofhighstatusgroupsmorelikelytocomplainaboutunfairoutcomes?Whyishighself-esteemassociatedwithviolenceinmen?Whatarereasonswhygenderdifferencesinself-esteemarehigherinwhiteNorthAmericanscomparedtominorityAmericans?21國外社會心理學SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfSocialComparisonTheory—Festinger(1954)suggestedthatpeoplecomparethemselvestootherswhenthereisnoobjectiveyardsticktoevaluatetheselfagainstothers’performanceDownwardSocialComparison—comparingoneselftootherswhodolesswellthantheselfUpwardSocialComparison—comparingoneselftootherswhodobetterthantheselfMethodofcomparisonaffectshowpeoplethinkandfeelaboutthemselves22國外社會心理學SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfMethodofcomparisondependsonpeople’smotivesforcomparison:tofeelgoodortobeaccurateTobeaccurate,itmaybebesttocompareone’sperformancewithsomeonewhoissimilaronvariousdimensions(e.g.,gender,ethnicity,orproficiencyinaspecificdomain).Also,comparisontosimilarothers(thoseinone’sin-group)mayresultinamorepositiveresult23國外社會心理學SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfContextswithinwhichcomparisonsoccurhavedifferentconsequencesSelf-EvaluationMaintenanceModel—suggeststhattomaintainapositiveviewofthepersonalselfpeopledistancethemselvesfromotherswhoperformbetterthantheydoonvalueddimensions,butmoveclosertootherswhoperformworsethantheydoSocialIdentityTheory—suggeststhattomaintainapositiveviewoftheirgroupidentitypeoplewillmoveclosertopositiveotherswithwhomtheyshareanidentity,butdistancefrom(orderogate)thosewhoperformpoorlyorsomehowmakesocialidentitynegative(black-sheepeffect)24國外社會心理學SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelf25國外社會心理學SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfSelf-PresentationandSelf-RegulationIngratiation—whenpeopletrytomakeotherslikethembyconveyingthattheylikethemAnd,peoplecanattempttopresentthemselvestoothersaspossessingpositiveattributesThistendencyisaffectedbyculturalnorms.AmericanstudentsaremorelikelytodescribethemselvesintermsoftheirstrengthsthanareJapanesestudentswhotendtobemoreself-critical.26國外社會心理學SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfSelf-Monitoring—referstohowmotivatedandablepeoplearetomonitortheirbehaviorinresponsetoothers’expectanciesHighself-monitorsareconcernedwiththereactionsofothersandareverygoodatmonitoringtheirbehaviorandadjustingtheiractionsinfrontofotherpeople.UsethirdpersonpronounsthatshowoutwardfocusonothersTendtohavehigherself-esteemduetosocialapprovalLowself-monitorsarenotasadeptatthisandprefertoactconsistentlywiththeirpersonalviews.UsefirstpersonpronounsthatshowafocusontheselfLoseself-esteemwhentheyviolateownpersonalstandards27國外社會心理學SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfAnothermethodtoknowtheself,whichisassumedtobeuseful,isintrospection—theprocessofprivatelythinkingabout“whooneis.”However,lookinginwardmaynotbethebestwaytogainself-knowledge.

Peopleoftendonothaveconsciousawarenessofthereasonsfortheiractions.Analyzingreasonsforlikingorchoosingsomethingcanresultinattitudechangethatmisleadspeoplewhenmakinganotherchoice.Peoplearenotverygoodatpredictingtheirfuturefeelings.Theusefulnessofintrospectiondependsonwhichaspectsoftheselfareanalyzed.28國外社會心理學SocialComparison:KnowingtheSelfWhatareyourthoughts?Whydopeoplemakedownwardsocialcomparisons?Ifsomeoneclosetoyouperformsbetterthanyoudoonataskthatisimportanttoyou,whatmayhappenaccordingtotheself-evaluationmaintenancemodel?Whoislikelytostayinrelationshipslonger,alowself-monitororahighself-monitor?Why?29國外社會心理學TheSelfasTargetofPrejudiceEmotionalConsequencesIthasbeenproposedthatattributingnegativeoutcomestoprejudicemaybeawaytomaintainself-esteemHowever,perceiveddiscriminationandself-esteemha