浙江大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)言文化與國(guó)際交流學(xué)院《712英美文學(xué)與語(yǔ)言學(xué)》（外國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)及應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)專業(yè)）歷年考研真題及詳解

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2009年浙江大學(xué)714英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言與語(yǔ)言學(xué)考研真題及部分詳解

Part1

SectionA

Directions:Readthefollowingtwotexts.Answerthe

questionsbeloweachtextbychoosingA,B,CorD.MarkyouranswersonANSWER

SHEET1.(20points)

Passage1

Foodcompanieshavelongwantedmorefreedomtomake

nutritionalclaimsfortheirproducts.Theylookedonenviouslyasmakersof

dietarysupplements,whichoperatedunderlooserregulations,promotedthe

life-enhancingorevenlife-extendingcapabilitiesoftheirproducts.

Afterseveralcourtcasesandpressurefromthefood

industry,theFoodandDrugAdministrationlighteneduplastyear,decidingto

permithealthclaimsonfoodevenwhenscientificevidencewaslessthan

conclusive.Butgettingwhatyouwant,asJohnStuartMillonceobserved,does

notalwaysturnouttobesosatisfying.

Sofar,theagencyhasapprovedclaimsforwalnutsandfor

agroupofseventypesofnuts.Allofthenutsaresaidtohavethepotential

toreducetheriskofheartdisease.

Somecompaniesseekingthenewclaims,however,are

disappointedbythelanguagethattheagencyhasallowed,andhavebeenslowto

useit.Fewnutbrandshaverelabeledtheirpackaging,butPlanters,aunitof

KraftFoods,hasbeenusingthelanguageonsomeofitsdry-roastedpeanuts.

Marketersofwalnutsreceivedpermissiontomakehealth

claimslastJuly,andtheFDAtoldthecompaniesthattheycouldputthis

languageontheirproducts:“Supportivebutnotconclusiveresearchshowsthat

eating1.5ouncesperdayofwalnutsaspartofadietlowinfatand

cholesterolmayreducetheriskofheartdisease.”

Now,eightmonthsaftertheapproval,fewifanywalnut

productscarryaprintedhealthclaim.Consumerresearchbythewalnut

commission,whichrepresentsmorethan5,000growersandhandlers,suggested

thattheclaimwoulddolittletopromotesales.“Whenyoutelltheconsumer

‘supportivebutnotconclusive’and‘may’—withallthosequalifiers,theclaim

isnotverymeaningful,”Mr.Balint,chiefexecutiveoftheCaliforniaWalnut

Commissionsaid.

1Itcanbeinferredfromthefirstparagraph

thatfoodcompanieshavealwaysbelievedthat______.

A.their

productshadlife-enhancingfunctions

B.thereshould

bestricterregulationsgoverningdietarysupplementsmakers

C.their

productsweresuperiortothosedietarysupplements

D.nutritional

claimcouldpromotesalesoftheirproducts

2Inthepast,FDA

wouldn’tpermithealthclaimsonfoodunless______.

A.companies

producingthefoodcouldprovideevidenceonitshealthvalue

B.therewere

conclusiveevidencewithregardtoitshealthvalue

C.scientists

studyingthefoodallagreedthatitwashealthful

D.itwasproved

incourtthatthefoodwasbeneficialtohealth

3AlthoughFDAallowed

foodcompaniestomakehealthclaimsontheirproducts,it______.

A.set

restrictionsonthekindoflanguagethattheycoulduse

B.gavepermissiononlytocompaniesmaking

walnuts

C.gavepermissiononlytocompanieswhoseproductscould

reduceheartdisease

D.onlyallowed

Planters,aunitofKraftFoodstodoso

4Accordingtothe

printedhealthclaimsonwalnutproducts,consumersmightinferthat______.

A.eating1.5

ouncesofwalnutsperdaycanreducetheriskofheartdisease

B.walnutscan

donothingtoreducetheriskofheartdisease

C.walnutsare

moreimportantthanahealthydietinreducingtheriskofheartdisease

D.scientists

arestillnotquitesureaboutwalnuts’reducingheartdisease

5Thepassageis

mainlyabout______.

A.the

continuousconflictbetweenfoodcompaniesandFDA

B.thetricks

usedbyfoodcompaniesinadvertisements

C.FDA’s

restrictiononhealthclaimsmadebyfoodcompanies

D.theinfluence

scientificresearchhasonfoodcompanies

Passage2

Everyyear,therearethousandsofcollegeprofessorswho,

twoorthreetimesaweek,offerwhatislargelythesamebasiclecturecourse

inasubjectlikebiologyorShakespeare’scomedies.Afewoftheseprofessors

offerthekindofbrilliantlecturesthatfillclassroomsandprovidethekind

ofeducationalexperiencethatstudentsrememberalltheirlives.Manyoftherest

offersomethingfrommediocretoawful.

So,askedTaylorandAllen,WilliamsCollegephilosophy

professor,whydon’tweidentifytheseextraordinarylecturers,puttheir

lecturesonCDs,andsellthemtouniversitiesthatcouldsupplementthemwith

faculty-leddiscussions?Theadvantagesseemedprettyclear.Collegesthat

employedthecelebritylecturerscouldhelpdefraythecostofsuperstar

salarieswhileenhancingtheirown!reputations.Andschoolsthatpurchasethe

lecturescouldlowercostswhileimprovingthequalityoftheireducational

offering.

Inbusinessterms,thiswasnothingmorecomplicatedthan

bringingtheprovenbenefitsofscaleeconomies,andhigh-techdistributionto

highereducation.Butasyoumighthaveguessed,itwasnotexactlywelcomedby

anestablishmentthatpridesitselfonremainingaquaintcottageindustry.

Eliteuniversitiesworriedabout“diluting”theirbrands

and“polluting”theirmissionbyjoininginaprofit-makingenterprise.And

facultiesimmediatelysawathreatnotonlytotheirjobsandsalaries,buta

lifestyleandteachingmodelthathadcossetedthemforcenturies.Soafter

severalyearsoftrying,theeffortwasscrapped.

Therearelotsofreasonswhyhighereducationhasbeen

abletoresistthekindofrationalizationeveryotherindustryhasgone

through.Mostlythesehavetodowiththeimperfectpricecompetitionthat

comeswitha“status”good,particularlyonethatgetslotsofgovernment

subsidyandhasbeenrisingquicklyineconomicvalue.Butthereisevidence

thatallthatmaybeabouttochange.

Withgovernmentcuttingsubsidies,thereisfinallyenough

financialpressureonpubliccollegesthattheyhavenochoicebuttoconsider

makingfundamentalchangesinthewayteachingisorganized.

Atthesametime,collegesarebeginningtofacereal

competitionfromfor-profituniversitiesthatcanchargelowerfeesbymaking

skillfuluseofdigitizedlecturesandonlinediscussions.

Obviously,thiscompetitionposesmoreofathreatto

third-rankcollegesthanitdoestoHarvardandGeorgetown.Butgiveittime.

6Whichofthe

followingstatementsistrueofthefirstparagraph?

A.Colleges

offertoomanybasiccourseseveryyear.

B.Subjectssuch

asbiologyorShakespeare’scomediesareoutofdate.

C.Manycollege

professorsofferunsatisfactorylectures.

D.Students

cannottellagoodlecturefromanawfulone.

7WhatdidTaylorand

Allenadvise?

A.Colleges

shouldemploythecelebrityprofessors.

B.The

extraordinaryprofessors’lecturesshouldbeputonCDsandsoldto

universities.

C.Colleges

shouldprovidestudentswitheducationalexperiencethattheywillremember

forever.

D.Colleges

shouldimprovethequalityoftheireducationalofferings.

8Whyaresome

universitiesagainsttheadvice?

 A.They

believecolleges’missionshouldnotberelatedtomakingprofit.

B.Teachers

cravefornewlifestyleandteachingmodel.

 C.Some

universitiesareafraidtolosetheirgovernmentsubsidy.

D.Some

universitiesresisttheideaof“cottageindustry”.

9Whatisthethreat

publiccollegesarefacingaccordingtotheauthor?

A.Diluted

brandsofEliteuniversities.

 B.

Fundamentalchangesintheteachingmethods.

C.Government’s

cuttingsubsidies.

D.Thelow

qualityofprofessors.

10Whatisthe

author’sattitudetowardsdigitalizedlectures?

 A.

Digitalizedlecturesarenotasgoodastheyseemtobe.

 B.

Digitalizedlectureswilldeprivecollegestaffoftheirposition.

 C.

Third-rankcollegesshouldusemoreofthemthanHarvard.

 D.

Universitiescouldlowercostsbymakingskillfuluseofthem.

SectionB

Directions:Readthearticlebelow.Choosethebestsentencefromthelistto

filleachofthegaps.Foreachgap(11-20)markoneletter(A-L)onyour

AnswerSheet.Donotmarkanylettertwice.Thereareextrasentencesyoudo

notneedtouse.(20points)

In1977Irene

Pepperberg,arecentgraduateofHarvardUniversity,didsomethingverybold.

Atatimewhenanimalsstillwereconsideredautomatons,shesetouttofind

whatwasonanothercreature’smindbytalkingtoit.Shebroughta

one-year-oldAfricangrayparrotshenamedAlexintoherlabtoteachhimto

reproducethesoundsoftheEnglishlanguage.“Ithoughtifhelearnedto

communicate,Icouldaskhimquestionsabouthowheseestheworld.”

WhenPepperberg

beganherdialoguewithAlex,whodiedlastSeptemberattheageof31,many

scientistsbelievedanimalswereincapableofanythought.(11)______Anypetownerwoulddisagree.

Weseetheloveinourdogs’eyesandknowthat,ofcourse,Spothasthoughts

andemotions.(12)______Gutinstinctisnotscience,anditisalltooeasy

toprojecthumanthoughtsandfeelingsontoanothercreature.How,then,doesa

scientistprovethatananimaliscapableofthinking—thatitisableto

acquireinformationabouttheworldandactonit?

(13)______Theywereseated—sheatherdesk,heontopof

hiscage—inherlab,awindowlessroomaboutthesizeofaboxcar,atBrandeis

University.Newspaperslinedthefloor;basketsofbrighttoyswerestackedon

theshelves.Theywereclearlyateam—andbecauseoftheirwork,thenotion

thatanimalscanthinkisnolongersofanciful.

Certainskillsareconsideredkeysignsofhighermental

abilities:goodmemory,agraspofgrammarandsymbols,self-awareness,

understandingothers’motives,imitatingothers,andbeingcreative.(14)

______Scrubjaysknowthatotherjaysarethievesandthatstashedfoodcan

spoil;sheepcanrecognizefaces;chimpanzeesuseavarietyoftoolstoprobe

termitemoundsandevenuseweaponstohuntsmallmammals;dolphinscanimitate

humanpostures;thearcherfish,whichstunsinsectswithasuddenblastof

water,canlearnhowtoaimitssquirtsimplybywatchinganexperiencedfish

performthetask.(15)______

ThirtyyearsaftertheAlexstudiesbegan,Pepperberganda

changingcollectionofassistantswerestillgivinghimEnglishlessons.The

humans,alongwithtwoyoungerparrots,alsoservedasAlex’sflock,providing

thesocialinputallparrotscrave.Likeanyflock,thisone—assmallasit

was—haditsshareofdrama.Alexdominatedhisfellowparrots,actedhuffyat

timesaroundPepperberg,toleratedtheotherfemalehumans,andfelltopieces

overamaleassistantwhodroppedbyforavisit.

PepperbergboughtAlexinaChicagopetstore.(16)______

GiventhatAlex’sbrainwasthesizeofashelledwalnut,mostresearchers

thoughtPepperberg’sinterspeciescommunicationstudywouldbefutile.

(17)______

Chimpanzees,bonobos,andgorillashavebeentaughttouse

signlanguageandsymbolstocommunicatewithus,oftenwithimpressive

results.(18)______Nevertheless,thisisnotthesamethingashavingan

animallookupatyou,openhismouth,andspeak.

Pepperbergwalkedtothebackoftheroom,whereAlexsat

ontopofhiscagepreeninghispearlgrayfeathers.Hestoppedatherapproach

andopenedhisbeak.

(19)______

“Hehasn’thadhisbreakfastyet,”Pepperbergexplained,

“sohe’salittleputout.”

Alexreturnedtopreening,whileanassistantprepareda

bowlofgrapes,greenbeans,appleandbananaslices,andcornonthecob.

(20)______

“Applestastealittlebitlikebananastohim,andthey

lookalittlebitlikecherries,soAlexmadeupthatwordforthem,”

Pepperbergsaid.

A.ThebonoboKanzi,forinstance,carrieshis

symbol-communicationboardwithhimsohecan“talk”tohishumanresearchers,

andhehasinventedcombinationsofsymbolstoexpresshisthoughts.

B.Bitbybit,iningeniousexperiments,

researchershavedocumentedthesetalentsinotherspecies,graduallychipping

awayatwhatwethoughtmadehumanbeingsdistinctivewhileofferingaglimpse

ofwhereourownabilitiescamefrom.

C.Largeanimalsarelimitedmainlytothe

river,streamandlakeareasduringthewinter,andareeasilyobservedbyski

andsnowmobilevisitors.

D.Theyweresimplymachines,robotsprogrammed

toreacttostimulibutlackingtheabilitytothinkorfeel.

E.“Somepeopleactuallycalledmecrazyfor

tryingthis,”shesaid.“Scientiststhoughtthatchimpanzeeswerebetter

subjects,although,ofcourse,chimpscan’tspeak.”

F.UnderPepperberg’spatienttutelage,Alex

learnedhowtousehisvocaltracttoimitatealmostonehundredEnglishwords,

includingthesoundsforallofthesefoods,althoughhecallsanapplea“banerry.”

G.“Wantgrape,”Alexsaid.

H.Sheletthestore’sassistantpickhimout

becauseshedidn’twantotherscientistssayinglaterthatshe’ddeliberately

chosenanespeciallysmartbirdforherwork.

I.“That’swhyIstartedmystudieswithAlex,”

Pepperbergsaid.

J.Hedidn’tseekcreditandinfacttriednot

tobeviewedasanadvocateofanyoneidea.

K.Butsuchclaimsremainhighlycontroversial.

L.Butjusttwodecadeslaterthere’savery

realpossibilityoftheirextinctionintheNorthwestAtlantic.

M.AndAlextheparrotturnedouttobea

surprisinglygoodtalker.

SectionC

Directions:Readthearticlebelow.Fillineachofthe

blankswithoneword.(20points)

Theyspendmoretimeindoctors’officesthanmostparents.

Theyendurestaresfromstrangersbutfeelasiftheyandtheirchildrenare

invisible.Theyoftenfind(21)  fightingfor

theirkids,notjustraisingthem.Earlier,andperhapsmoredramatically,they

wrestlewiththecomplexemotions(22)  comefrom

knowingthatachildmightnever(23)  thelofty

dreamsthataparentoftenenvisions(24)  the

child’sbirth.

(25)  theparentsofchildrenwhohaveDownsyndromesay

thatraisingachildwithadisabilitycanalsounlockprofoundanduplifting

truthsaboutthemselves,theirchildrenandthevalueoflifein(26)

  thatotherscouldneversee.

Suddenly,peoplearelooking.

SinceAlaskaGov.SarahPalin(27)  the

vicepresidentialraceasSen.JohnMcCain’sGOPrunningmate,shehasbeen

makingthecasethatshecan(28)  agovernment

andafamilywithchildren,(29)  a5-month-old

sonwithDownsyndrome.HerdecisiontogivebirthtohersonTrig,(30)

  aprenataldiagnosisofhisDownsyndrome,alsounderscoredto

somepeopleherantiabortionstance.

TheattentiononPalinandherfamilyhasspilledoverto

peoplesuchasAdriannePedlikin,aViennamotherofthree,includinga

10-year-oldsonwhohasDownsyndrome.

“Peoplekeepaskingme,“Sowhatdoyouthink?’I(31)

  saying,‘Whatisitexactlyyouwantmyopinionabout?’”

Pedlikinsaid.“Peopleare(32)  muchmore

attentiontous….Before,kidswouldstare,but(33)  adults.

Everybody’scurious:‘What’sit(34)  tohavea

kidwithDownsyndrome?’”

ForPedlikinandherhusband,Philip,raisingaboywith

Downsyndromecanbetrying.Theylovetheirsondeeply,actasforceful

advocatesforhimandsayhisbirthhas(35)  their

worldviewinapositiveway,buttheyacknowledgethattheir(36)

  aremuchharder,moreemotionallywrenchingandoftenlonely.

Other(37)  ofchildrenwith

Downsyndrome,althoughthankfulthatmedicalapproachesand

anti-discrimination

lawshave(38)  morepossibilitiesfortheir

childrenthanbefore,saytheirchildren’sdisabilitiesoftenrequiremoreof

themthanotherparentsface.They(39)  alotof

timefightingwithschoolstoincludetheirchildren,despitetheAmericans

WithDisabilitiesEducationAct.Theyconstantlypushbackagainstthelow(40)

  peoplehavefortheirchildren.

【答案】Part1略查看答案

Part2

SectionA

Directions:Defineandexplainbrieflythefollowingterms.

(20points)

1suprasegmental

features

答案：

Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspects

ofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipal

suprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,toneandintonation.

2phaticfunctionof

languageuse

答案：

Phaticfunctionoflanguageusereferstotheuseofthelanguagewhich

oftenconsistsofsmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionforsettingupa

certainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactsratherthanforexchanging

informationorideas.Forexample,greetings,farewells,andcommentsonthe

weatherinEnglishcouldservethisfunction.

3theSapir-Whorfhypothesis

答案：

Sapir-Whorfhypothesisconsistsoftwo

parts:linguisticdeterminismandlinguisticrelativity.Linguisticdeterminism

referstothenotionthatalanguagedeterminescertainnonlinguisticcognitive

processes.Differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressing

around,theythinkandspeakdifferently.Linguisticrelativityreferstotheclaim

thatthecognitiveprocessesthataredeterminedaredifferentfordifferent

languages.Thus,speakersofdifferentlanguagesaresaidtothinkindifferent

ways.Thehypothesisisnowinterpretedmainlyintwodifferentways:astrong

versionandaweakone.Thestrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdetermine

people’sthinkingandbehavior;theweakoneholdsthattheformerinfluence

thelater.Sofar,manyresearchesandexperimentsconductedprovidesupportto

theweakversion.

4imageschema

答案：

Imageschemais

arecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptualinteractionsandmotorprograms

thatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperience.

Imageschema

existsatalevelofabstraction,operatesatalevelofmentalorganization

betweenpropositionstructuresandconcreteimage,anditcanbesubdivided

intothefollowingitems:acenter-peripheryschema,acontainmentschema,a

cycleschema,aforceschema,alinkschema,apart-wholeschema,an

end-of-pathschema,ascaleschemaandaverticalityschema.

5interlanguage

答案：

Interlanguage.Itreferstothetypeof

languageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillin

theprocessoflearningalanguage.It’salanguagesystembetweenthetarget

languageandthelearner’snativelanguage,andimperfectcomparedwiththe

targetlanguage,butnotmeretranslationfromthelearner’snativelanguage.

Forexample,whenaChinesestudentislearningEnglish,hemaymakeerrors

like“totouchthesociety”.

SectionB

Directions:Answeranysevenofthefollowingquestions.

(70points)

1Whatarethebasic

differencesbetweenphoneticsandphonology?

答案：

Bydefinition,phoneticsisthestudyof

speechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,whilephonologyisthestudy

oftherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeech

soundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Bothphoneticsandphonologyareconcerned

withspeech.Phoneticsisthestudyoftheproduction,perception,andphysical

propertiesofspeechsounds;phonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyare

combined,organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages.Phoneticsis

thestudyofactualsounds,thatis,theanalysisandmodelingothespeech

signal;phonologyisconcernedwithamoreabstractdescriptionofspeech

soundsandtriestodescribetheregularitiesofsoundpatternsindifferent

languagesorwithinalanguage.Inthissense,phoneticsisconcrete,while

phonologyisabstract.Whatphoneticsstudiesisthespeechsound,namely

phone,whilewhatphonologystudiesisphoneme.

2Useexamplestodefine“gradableantonymy”,

“complementaryantonymy”,and“converseantonymy”.

答案：

Gradable

antonymyisthesenserelationbetweentwoanyonymswhichdifferintermsof

degree.Thereisanintermediategroundbetweenthetwo.Thedenialofoneis

notnecessarilytheassertionoftheother.Somethingwhichisnot“good”is

notnecessarily“bad”.Itmaysimplybe“so-so”or“average”.

Complementary

antonymyisthesenserelationbetweenthetwoantonymswhicharecomplementary

toeachother.Thatis,theydividedupthewholeofsemanticfieldcompletely.

Notonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,thedenialofone

alsomeanstheassertionoftheother.Notonlyheisalivemeansheis

notdead,heisnotalivealsomeansheisdead.

Converse

antonymyisaspecialtypeofantonymyinthatthemembersofapairdonot

constituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthereversalofa

relationshipbetweentwoentities.XistheparentofYmeansthesameasYisthe

childofX.itisthesamerelationshipseenfromtwodifferentangles.

3Writeoutthe

presupposition(s)containedineachofajudge’squestionsbelow:

a.Howdidyouknowthatthedefendanthadboughtaknife?

b.Didyouseethemurderedwomanwhenshewastalkingwith

herlover?

c.Whydidyourunawayfromthesceneofthecrimewithout

callingthepolice?

答案：

Thepresuppositionofaisthattheremust

beadefendant.

Thepresuppositionofbisthatthewoman

wasmurderedandshehasalover.

Thepresuppositionofcisthatthereisa

crimetakingplace.

4Definetheconcept

of“concord”insyntaxwithexamplesfromEnglish.

答案：

Itisalsoknownasagreement.Itisa

syntacticrelationbetweenwordsandphraseswhicharecompatible,inagivenconduction,

byvirtueofinflectionscarriedbyatleastoneofthem.Therearetwotypes

ofconcord:notionalagreementandgrammaticalagreement.Itrequirestheforms

oftwoormorewordsthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithone

anothershallalsobecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarked

category.Forexample,thesyntacticrelationshipbetweenthatgirlandshein

thefollowingdialogue:A:Whoisthatgirl?B:Oh,sheismysister.

5Useexamplestodescribetheviolationof

eachofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprincipleandtheirpossible

implicatures.

答案：

Themaximofquantity:

①M(fèi)ake

yourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired

②Do

notmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.

Violationofthemaximofquantity

A:Wheredidyoubuyyourbook?

B:Inabookshop.Itisquitefarfrom

here.

Theinformationcontainedinthesecond

partoftheanswerismorethanrequired.

Themaximofquality:

①Do

notsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse

②Do

notsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

Violationofthemaximofquality

Heismadeofsteel.

Thisis,atthelevelofwhatissaid,a

falsestatement.

Themaximofrelation

①the

utteranceshouldberelevant

Violationofthemaximofrelation

A:Theboyisanunwelcomeguest.

B:Well,ah,itisafinedaytoday.

BhasapparentlyrefusedtomakewhathesaidrelevanttoA’s

precedingremarktoavoidsomethingunpleasant.

Themaximofmanner:

①Avoidobscurityofexpression

②Avoidambiguity

③Bebriefandbeorderly.

Violationofthemaximofmanner

A:Let’sgetsomethingtoeatforthekids.

B:OK,butIvetoI-C-EC-R-E-A-M-S.

TheB’sremarkisobviouslyobscureandnot

briefenough.

6Howdoeshuman

languagedifferfromthecommunicationsystemsofanimals?

答案：

The

designfeaturesoflanguagewhichreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhuman

languagethattellsthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemof

animalcommunication.

Arbitrariness:this

isacorefeatureoflanguage,whichmeansthatthereisnologicalconnection

betweenmeaningsandsounds.Duality,whichmeansthepropertyofhavingtwo

levelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedof

elementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevels,hasitsown

principlesoforganization.

Creativitymeans

languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Because

ofdualitythespeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitestoform

aninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverheardbefore.

Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhichare

presentornotpresent,realorimaginedmatters,inthepast,present,or

future,orinfar-awayplaces.

7Whatconstitutes

communicativecompetence?

答案：

NoamChomskydefinescompetenceasalanguage

user’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemorrules.InChomsky’sview,thenative

speaker’scompetencecanbecharacterizedasasetofrulesforproducingan

understandingofsentencesinhislanguage.DellHymespointedoutthatChomsky’s

competenceisnecessarybutnotsufficientforalearnertocommunicatewith

otherssuccessfullyinaspeechcommunity.Inadditiontogrammaticalaccuracy,

asuccessfulcommunicationrequiresappropriacyinthesensethatheknowswhen

hespeakswhattowhom.Thusheextendedthenotionofcompetence,restricted

byChomskytoknowledgeofgrammar,toincorporatethepragmaticabilityfor

languageuse.Thisextendedideaofcompetenceiscalledcommunicative

competence.

Thuswecansee

thatthecontentofcommunicativecompetenceislargerthancompetence.

Communicativecompetenceusuallyincludestheseveralparts:grammatical

competence,thatisknowledgeofgrammar,vocabulary,phonology,andsemantics

ofalanguage;sociolinguisticcompetence,thatistheknowledgeoftherelationship

betweenlanguageanditsnonlinguisticcontext,knowinghowtouseandrespond

appropriatelytodifferenttypesofspeechacts,andsoforth;discourse

competence,thatisknowinghowtobeginandendconversationsandstrategic

competence,thatisknowledgeofcommunicationstrategiesthatcancompensate

forweaknessinotherareas.

8Howdotheserial

andparallelmodelsaccountforsentencecomprehension?

答案：

Inaserialmodel,thecomprehensionsystem

selectsasingleinterpretationonsomebasis,andonlyconsidersotheralternatives

ifitsfirstchoiceturnsouttobewrong.Whenthesystem'sfirstchoiceis

correct,thismodelisoptimallyefficient,expending