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TheRomanArmy'sImpactonInthewakeoftheRomanEmpire'sconquestofBritaininthefirstcenturyA.D.,alargenumberoftroopsstayedinthenewprov e,andthesetroopshadaconsiderableimpactonBritainwiththeircamps,fortifications,andparticipationinthelocaleconomy.Assessingtheimpactofthearmyonthecivilianpopulationstartsfromtherealizationthatthesoldierswerealwaysunevenlydistributedacrossthecountry.Areasrapidly orporatedintotheempirewerenotlongaffectedbythemilitary.Wherethearmyremainedstationed,itspresencewasmuoreinfluential.Theimpositionofamilitarybaseinvolvedtherequisitionofnativelandsforboththefortandtheterritoryneededtofeedandexercisethesoldiers'animals.Theimpositionofmilitaryrulealsorobbedlocalleadersofopportunitiestoparticipateinlocal ernment,sosocialdevelopmentwasstuntedandtheseedsofdisaffectionsown.Thisthenmeantthatthemilitaryhadtoremaintosuppressrebellionandorganizeernment.EconomicexchangewasclearlyveryimportantastheRomanarmybroughtwithitverysubstantialspendingpower.Locally1aforthadtwokindsofimpact.Itslargepopulationneededfoodandothers.Someofthesewerecertainlybroughtfromlongdistances,butdemandswereinevitablycedonthelocalarea.Althoughgoodscouldberequisitioned,theywereusuallypaidfor,andthisprobablystimulatedchangesinthelocaleconomy.Whennotning,soldiersneededtobeoccupied;otherwisetheyrepresentedapotentiallydangeroussourceoffrictionanddisloyalty.Henceawritingtabletdated25Aprillsof343menatonefortengagedontaskslikeshoemaking,buildingabathhouse,operatingkilns,diggingclay,andworkinglead.Suchactivitieshadamajoreffectonthelocalarea,inparticularwiththeconstructionofinfrastructuresuchasroads,whichimprovedaccesstoremoteareas.Eachsoldierreceivedhispay,butinregionswithoutadevelopedeconomytherewasinitiallylittleonwhichitcouldbespent.Thepoolofexcesscashrapidlystimulatedathrivingeconomyoutsidefortgates.Someofthedemandfortheservicesandgoodswasnodoubtfulfilledbypeopledrawnfromfarafield,butsomelocalpeoplecertainlybecameentwinedinthisneweconomy.Therewasinformalmarriagewithsoldiers,whountilAD197werenotlegallyentitledtowed,andwholenewcommunitiesgrewupneartheforts.Thesesettlementsactedlikesmalltowns,ingcentersfortheartisanandtradingThearmyalsoprovidedameanofaladvancementforauxiliarysoldiersrecruitedfromthenativepeoples,asamanobtainedhereditaryRomancitizenshiponretirementafterserviceinanauxiliaryregiment.Suchunitsrecruitedonanadhoc(asneeded)basisfromtheareainwhichtheywerestationed,andtherewasevidentlylarge-scalerecruitmentwithinBritain.Thetotalnumberswereatleast ptothereignoftheemperorH(A.D.117-138),withapeak1withrespecttoaparticularceoraroundA.D.80.Althoughasmallproportionofthetotalpopulation,thisperhapshadamassivelocalimpactwhenalargeproportionoftheyoungmenwereremovedfromanarea.Newlyraisedregimentswerenormallytransferredtoanotherprov fromwhenceitwasunlikelythatindividualrecruitswouldeverreturn.MostunitsraisedinBritainwen sewhereontheEuropeancontinent,althoughoneisrecordedinMorocco.ThereverseprocessbroughtyoungmentoBritain,wheremanytoliveaftertheir20to25yearsofservice,andthisaddedtothecosmopolitanRomancharacterofthefrontierpopulation.BythelaterRomanperiod,frontiergarrisons(groupsofsoldiers)wereonlyrarelytransferred,serviceinunitsbecameeffectivelyhereditary,andfortswerenolongerpopulatedormaintainedatfullstrength.Thisprocessofsettlinginasacommunityoverseveralgenerations,combinedwithlocalrecruitment,presumablyaccountsfortheapparentstabilityoftheBritishnorthernfrontierinthelaterRomanperiod.ItalsoexinswhysomeofthefortsinoccupationlongafterRomeceasedtohaveanyformalauthorityinBritain,atthebeginningofthefifthcenturyA.D.Thecircumstancesthathadallowednativesto eRomanizedalsoledtheself-sustainingmilitarycommunityofthefrontierareato eeffectivelyBritish.

對(duì)人口數(shù)量的影響要從士兵在國(guó)家內(nèi)不均勻的分配開(kāi)始講起，那些很快就并 的影響。而那些保留的地區(qū)，的存在產(chǎn) 和領(lǐng)地內(nèi)喂養(yǎng)和訓(xùn)練，這些都需要當(dāng)?shù)厝コ袚?dān)。規(guī)定也強(qiáng)行了本地者參與 的機(jī)會(huì)，因而社會(huì)的發(fā)展收到了，不滿的情緒開(kāi)始蔓延。 因?yàn)榱_馬有著強(qiáng)大的消費(fèi)潛力，經(jīng)濟(jì)交流就顯得的非常重要。在當(dāng)?shù)?，一個(gè)月25日的寫字板講述了一個(gè)內(nèi)243名士兵干著諸如做鞋，造房子，操作爐 匠和生意人的特別的大。在(A.D.117-138)時(shí)期總數(shù)至少有12500個(gè)，在公元80年時(shí)達(dá)到頂峰。盡管這只是總?cè)丝谥械囊恍〔糠?，但是它?duì)很多那些遷走的后期英國(guó)北部邊境比較穩(wěn)定的，這也能解釋為什么五世紀(jì)初時(shí)這些即使在羅馬在不列顛沒(méi)有機(jī)構(gòu)的情況下依然存在。這種情況使得一 Inthelaten eenthcentury,ecologybegantogrowintoantsciencefromitsrootsinnaturalhistoryandntgeography.Theemphasisofthisn"communityecology"wasonthecompositionandstructureofcommunitiesconsistingofdifferentspecies.Intheearlytwentiethcentury,theAmericanecologistFredericClementspointedoutthatasuccessionofntcommunitieswoulddevelopafdisturbancesuchasavolcaniceruption,heavyflood,orfire.Anabandonedfield,forinstance,willbeinvadedsuccessivelybyherbaceousnts(ntswithlittleornowoodytissue),shrubs,andtrees,eventually inga.Light-lovingspeciesarealwaysamongthefirstinvaders,whileshade-tolerantspeciesappearlaterinthesuccession.Clementsandotherearlyecologistssawalmostlawlikeregularityintheorderofsuccession,butthathasnotbeensubstantiated.Ageneraltrendcanberecognized,butthedetailsareusuallyunpredictable.Successionisinfluencedbymanyfactors:thenatureofthesoil,exposuretosunandwind,regularityofprecipitation,chancecolonizations,andmanyotherrandomprocesses.Thefinalstageofasuccession,calledtheclimaxbyClementsandearlyecologists,islikewisenotpredictableorofuniformcomposition.Thereisusuallyagooddealofturnoverinspeciescomposition,eveninamaturecommunity.Thenatureoftheclimaxisinfluencedbythesamefactorsthatinfluencedsuccession.Nevertheless,maturenaturalenvironmentsareusuallyinequilibrium.Theychangerelativelylittlethroughtimeunlesstheenvironmentitselfchanges.ForClements,theclimaxwasa"superorganism,"anorganicentity.EvensomeauthorswhoacceptedtheclimaxconceptrejectedClements'characterizationofitasasuperorganism,anditisindeedamisleadingmetaphor.Anantcolonymaybelegitimaycalledasuperorganismbecauseitscommunicationsystemissohighlyorganizedthatthecolonyalwaysworksasawholeandappropriayaccordingtothecircumstances.Butthereisnoevidenceforsuchanin ctingcommunicativenetworkinaclimaxntformation.Manyauthorsprefertheterm"association"totheterm"community"inordertostresstheloosenessofthein Evenlessfortunatewastheextensionofthistypeofthinkingto ludeanimalsaswellasnts.Thisresultedinthe"biome,"acombinationofcoexistingfloraandfauna.Thoughitistruethatmanyanimalsarestrictlyassociatedwithcertainnts,itismisleadingtospeakofa"spruce-moosebiome,"forexample,becausethereisnointernalcohesiontotheirassociationasinanorganism.Thesprucecommunityisnotsubstantiallyaffectedbyeitherthepresenceorabsenceofmoose.Indeed,therearevastareasofsprucewithoutmoose.TheoppositiontotheClementsianconceptofntecologywasinitiatedbyHerbertGleason,soonjoinedbyvariousotherecologists.TheirmajorpointwasthatthedistributionofagivenspecieswascontrolledbythehabitatrequirementsofthatspeciesandthatthereforethevegetationtypeswereasimpleconsequenceoftheecologiesofindividualntWith"climax,""biome,""superorganism,"andvariousothertechnicaltermsfortheassociationofanimalsandntsatagivenlocalitybeingcriticized,theterm"ecosystem"wasmoreandmorewidelyadoptedforthewholesystemofassociatedorganismstogetherwiththephysicalfactorsoftheirenvironment.Eventually,theenergy-transformingroleofsuchasystemwasemphasized.Ecosystemsthusinvolvethecirculation,transformation,andaccumulationofenergyandmatterthroughthemediumoflivingthingsandtheiractivities.Theecologistisconcernedprimarilywiththetiesofmat ndenergythatpassthroughagivenecosystem,andwiththeratesatwhichtheydoso.Althoughtheecosystemconceptwasverypopularinthe1950sand1960s,itisnolongerthedominantparadigm.Gleason'sargumentsclimaxandbiomearelargelyvalidecosystemsaswell.Furthermore,thenumberofinctionsissogreatthattheyaredifficulttoyze,evenwiththehelpoflargecomputers.Finally,youngerecologistshavefoundecologicalproblemsinvolvingbehaviorandlife-historyadaptationsmoreattractivethanmeasuringphysicalconstants.Nevertheless,onestillspeaksoftheecosystemwhenreferringtoalocalassociationofanimalsandnts,usuallywithoutpayingmuchattentiontotheenergy

在19世紀(jì)末期，生態(tài)學(xué)開(kāi)始從它的——自然學(xué)和植物地理學(xué)中脫離出中的組成和結(jié)構(gòu)。在二十世紀(jì)早期，生態(tài)學(xué)家 ，些還沒(méi)有被證實(shí)?？梢钥闯龃蟾诺内厔?shì)，但是細(xì)節(jié)通常無(wú)法預(yù)見(jiàn)。其中的順者喜歡用而不是組織的概念以強(qiáng)調(diào)這種系統(tǒng)中松散的互相影響的關(guān)系。對(duì)關(guān)于植物群落概念的意見(jiàn)最早是由 Inthemiddleofthen eenthcentury,LouisAgassiz,oneofthefirstscientiststostudyglaciers,immigratedtotheUnitedStatesfromSwitzerlandandbecameaprofessoratHarvardUniversity,wherehehisstudiesingeologyandothersciences.Forhisresearch,AgassizvisitedmanycesinthenorthernpartsofEuropeandNorthAmerica,fromthemountainsofScandinaviaandNewEnglandtotherollinghillsoftheAmericanMidwest.Inallthesediverseregions,Agassizsawsignsofglacialerosionandsedimentation.Inflatinscountry,hesawmoraines(accumulationsofearthandlooserockthatformattheedgesofglaciers)thatremindedhimoftheterminalmorainesfoundatofvalleyglaciersintheAlps.Theheterogeneousmaterialofthedrift(sand,clay,androcksdepositedthere) edhimofitsglacialTheareascoveredbythismaterialweresovastthattheicethatdepositeditmusthavebeenacontinentalglacierlargerthanGreenlandorAntarctica.Eventually,Agassizandothersconv edgeologistsandthegeneralpublicthatagreatcontinentalglaciationhadextendedthepolaricecapsfarintoregionsthatnowenjoytemperateclimates.Forthefirsttime,peoplebegantotalkabouticeages.Itwasalsoapparentthattheglaciationoccurredintherelativelyrecentpastbecausethedriftwassoft,likefreshlydepositedsediment.Wenowknowoftheglaciationaccurayfromradiometricdatingofthecarbon-14inlogsburiedinthedrift.Thedriftofthelastglaciationwasdepositedduringoneofthemostrecentepochsofgeologictime,thePleistocene,whichlastedfrom1.8millionto10,000yearsago.AlongtheeastcoastoftheUnitedStates,thesouthernmostadvanceofthisiceisrecordedbytheenormoussandanddriftdepositsoftheterminalmorainesthatformLongIslandandCapeCod.ItsoonbecameclearthatthereweremultipleglacialagesduringthePleistocene,withwarmerinterglacialintervalsbetweenthem.Asgeologistsmappedglacialdepositsinthelaten eenthcentury,theybecameawarethattherewereseverallayersofdrift,theloweronescorrespondingtoearliericeages.Betweentheolderlayersofglacialmaterialwerewell-developedsoilscontainingfossilsofwarm-climatents.Thesesoilswereevidencethattheglaciersretreatedastheclimatewarmed.Bytheearlypartofthetwentiethcentury,scientistsbelievedthatfourdisttglaciationshadaffectedNorthAmericaandEuropeduringthePleistoceneepoch.Thisideawasmodifiedinthelatetwentiethcentury,whengeologistsand aminingoceanicsedimentfoundfossilevidenceofwarmingandcoolingoftheoceans.OceansedimentspresentedamuorecompletegeologicrecordofthePleistochancontinentalglacialdepositsdid.ThefossilsburiedinPleistoceneandearlieroceansedimentswereofforaminifera—small,single-celledmarineorganismsthatsecretessofcalciumcarbonate,orcalcite.Thesessdifferintheirproportionofordinaryoxygen(