二語習得期末復習資料

第頁Chapter1introducingsecondlanguageacquisitionSLA:atermthatrefersbothtothestudyofindividualsandgroupswhoarelearningalanguagesubsequenttolearningtheirfirstoneasyoungchildren,andtotheprocessoflearningthatlanguage.Secondlanguage:anofficiallyorsocietallydominantlanguage(notL1)neededforeducation,employmentorotherbasicpurposesInformalL2learning:SLAthattakesplaceinnaturalisticcontextsFormalL2learning:instructedlearningthattakesplaceinclassroomLinguisticcompetence:theunderlyingknowledgethataspeaker/hearerhaveofalanguage.Chomskydistinguishesthisformlinguisticperformance.Linguisticperformance:theuseoflanguageknowledgeinactualproduction.Firstlanguage/nativelanguage/mothertongue(L1):thelanguageacquiredinchildhoodSimultaneousmultilingualism:abilitytouseoneormorelanguagesthatwereauqiredduringearlychildhood.Sequentialmultilingualism:abilitytouseoneormorelanguagesthatwerelearnedafterL1hadalreadybeenestablished.WhatarethethreebasicquestionsinSLA?WhatexactlydoestheL2learnercometoknow?HowdoestheL2leaneracquirethisknowledge?Whyaresomelearnersmoresuccessfulthanothers?Whytherearenosimpleanswerstothesequestions?(P2)Chapter2foundationsofsecondlanguageacquisitionMultilingualism:theabilitytousemorethanonelanguage.Bilingualism:theabilitytousetwolanguages.Monolingualism:theabilitytouseonlyonelanguage.Multilingualcompetence:“thecompoundstateofamindwithtwoormoregrammars”Monolingualcompetence:knowledgeofonlyonelanguage.Learnerlanguage:alsocalledinterlanguagewhichreferstotheintermediatestatesorinterimgrammarsofleanerlanguageasitmovestowardthetargetL2.Positivetransfer:appropriateincorporation(合并，編入)ofanL1structureorruleinL2structure.Negativetransfer:inappropriateinfluenceofanL1structureorruleinL2use,alsocalledinterference.Fossilization:astablestateinSLAwherelearnersceasetheirinterlanguagedevelopmentbeforetheyreachtargetnormsdespitecontinuingL2inputandpassageoftime.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:theargumentthatbecauselanguageinputtochildrenisimpoverished(窮盡的)andtheystillacquireL1,theremustbeaninnatecapacityforL1acquisition.Innatecapacity:anaturalability,usuallyreferringtochildren’snaturalabilitytolearnoracquirelanguage.Whatisthenatureoflanguagelearning?Simultaneous/sequentialmultilingualismTheroleofnaturalabilityHumansarebornwithanaturalabilityorinnatecapacitytolearnanotherlanguage.Aschildrenmature,sodotheirlanguageabilities.Individualvariationmayoccurinlearning;therateoflearningcandiffer,buttherearestageseveryonegoesthrough.“Cutoffpoint”-iftheprocessdoesnothappenatayoungage,you'llneverlearnthelanguage.（關(guān)鍵期假說）(CriticalPeriodHypothesis)TheroleofsocialexperienceChildrenwillneveracquirelanguageunlessthatlanguageisusedwiththemandaroundthem,nomatterwhatistheirlanguage.Aslongaschildrenareexperiencinginputandsocialinteraction,therateandsequenceofdevelopmentdoesn'tchange.Theonlythingthatmaychangeispronunciation,vocabulary,andsocialfunction.WhataresomebasicsimilaritiesanddifferencesinL1andL2learning?(P17表格)SimilaritiesbetweenL1andL2DevelopmentstagesInitialState-knowledgeaboutlanguagestructuresandprinciplesIntermediateState-BasiclanguagedevelopmentFinalState-OutcomeoflearningNecessaryconditions:InputDifferencesbetweenL1andL2（P17表格）Whatis“thelogicalproblemoflanguageacquisition”?Children’sknowledgeoflanguagegoesbeyondwhatcouldbelearnedfromtheinputtheyreceive.(Poverty-of-thestimulus)ConstraintsandprinciplescannotbelearnedUniversalpatternsofdevelopmentcannotbeexplainedbylanguage-specificinput.(如果說普遍語法存在孩子們腦中，那語言輸入起的作用又如何解釋呢？)FrameworkforSLA(P24&P26)Perspectives,foci,andframeworksperspectivefociframeworkLinguisticInternalTransformational-GenerativeGrammarPrinciplesandParametersModelMinimalistProgramexternalFunctionalismpsychologyLanguaheandthebrainNeurolinguisticsLearningprocessesInformationProcessingProcessabilityConnectionismIndividualdifferenceHumanisticmodelsSocialMicrosocialVariationTheoryAccomodationTheorySocioculturalTheoryMacrosocialEthnographyofCommunicationAcculturationTheorySocialPsychologyGiveatleastthreereasonsthatmanyscientistsbelieveinsomeinnatecapacityforlanguageChildrenbegintolearntheirlanguageatthesameage,andinmuchthesamewayregardlessofwhatthelanguageis.Childrenarenotlimitedtorepeatingwhattheyheard;theycanunderstandandcreatenovel(新穎)utterance.Thereisacut-offageforL1acquisition,beyondwhichitcanneverbecompleted.Linguistshavetakenaninternalandexternalfocustothestudyoflanguageacquisition.Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetwo?Theinternalfocusseekstoaccountforspeakers’internalized,underlyingknowledgeoflanguage.Theexternalfocusemphasizeslanguageuse,includingthefunctionsoflanguagewhicharerealizedinlearners’productionatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Chapter3thelinguisticsofsecondlanguageacquisitionInterference:alsocallednegativetransfer,whichmeansinappropriateinfluenceofanL1structureorruleinL2use.Interlanguage:alsocalledlearnerlanguage,whichreferstotheintermediatestatesorinterimgrammarsofleanerlanguageasitmovestowardthetargetL2.Naturalorder:auniversalsequenceinthegrammaticaldevelopmentoflanguagelearners.Universalgrammar:alinguisticframeworkdevelopedmostprominentlybyChomskywhichclaimsthatL1acquisitionscanbeaccountedforonlybyinnateknowledgethatthehumanspeciesisgeneticallyendowedwith.Thisknowledgeincludeswhatalllanguageshaveincommon.Languagefaculty:termusedbyChomskyfoea“componentofthehumanmind”thataccountsforchildren’sinnateknowledgeoflanguage.Principles:properties(固有屬性)ofalllanguagesoftheworld;partofChomsky’suniversalgrammar.Parameters:limitedoptionsinrealizationofuniversalprincipleswhichaccountforgrammaticalvariationbetweenlanguagesoftheworld.PartofChomsky’stheoryofuniversalgrammar.Initialstate:thestartingpointoflanguageacquisition;itisthoughttoincludetheunderlyingknowledgeaboutlanguagestructuresandprinciplesthatareinlearners’headsattheverystartofL1orL2acquisition.Finalstate:theoutcomeofL1andL2learning,alsoknownasthestablestateofadultgrammar.Markedness:abasicforclassificationoflanguagesaccordingtowhetheraspecificfeatureoccursmorefrequentlythanacontrastingelementinthesamecategory,islesscomplexstructurallyorconceptually,orismore“normal”or“expected”alongsomedimensions.Grammaticalization(語法化):adevelopmentalprocessinwhichagrammaticalfunction(suchasexpressionofpasttime)isfirstconveyedbysharedextralinguisticknowledgeandinferencingbasedonthecontextofdiscourse,thenbyalexicalword(suchasyesterday),andonlylaterbyagrammaticalmarker(suchasthesuffix-ed).ThenatureoflanguageWhatwelearninlinguisticperspective?Whatarethecharacteristicsoflanguage?BothL1andL2learnersacquireknowledgeatthesedifferentlevels:lexicon(詞匯學),phonology(語音學),morphology(構(gòu)詞法),syntax(句法).Languagesaresystemic,symbolicandsocial.ContrastiveanalysisWhatiscontrastiveanalysis?CAisanapproachtothestudyofSLAwhichinvolvespredictingandexplaininglearnerproblemsbasedonacomparisonofL1andL2todeterminesimilaritiesanddifferences.Whatisthegoalofcontrastiveanalysis?(assumptions)IfL2acquisitionisdisturbedbythehabitsofyournativelanguage,itisreasonabletofocusonthedifferencesbetweennativeandtargetlanguage.Contrastiveanalysishadapracticalgoal:Ifyourecognizethedifferencesbetweenyournativelanguageandthetargetlanguage,youareabletoovercomethelinguistichabitsofyournativelanguagethatinterferewiththehabitsofthetargetlanguage.Whatarethecritiquesofcontrastiveanalysis?TheprocessofL2acquisitionisnotsufficientlydescribedbythecharacterizationoferrors.ErrorsinL2acquisitiondonotonlyarisefrominterference.ThestructuraldifferencesbetweentwolanguagesarenotsufficienttopredicttheoccurrenceoferrorsinL2acquisition.ErroranalysisWhatiserroranalysis？EAisbasedonthedescriptionandanalysisofactuallearnererrorsinL2,ratherthanonidealizedlinguisticstructuresattributedtonativespeakersofL1andL2(asinCA).WhatisthedifferencebetweenCAandEA?ContrastiveanalysisErroranalysisPedagogicalorientationScientificorientationFocusoninput,practice,inductivelearningFocusonlinguisticandcognitiveprocessesErrorsoftransferMultipletypesoferrorsWhataretheshortcomingsofEA?Ambiguityinclassification.(不知道是具體是哪個原因?qū)е卤热鐣r態(tài)錯誤，可能是一語影響，也可能是在一語中出現(xiàn)過的universaldevelopmentalprocess)Lackofpositivedata.(正確的被忽略，只關(guān)注錯誤不能看出學生學到什么)Potentialforavoidance.(學生會避免錯誤，這樣錯誤就不能全部被觀察)InterlanguageWhatarethecharacteristicsofinterlanguage?Systematic.Dynamic.Variable.(可變性)althoughsystematic,differencesincontextresultindifferentpatternsoflanguageuse.Reducedsystem,bothinformandfunction.(學習者經(jīng)常會簡單化)TherearedifferencesbetweenILdevelopmentandL1acquisition,includingdifferentcognitiveprocessesinvolved:LanguagetransferfromL1toL2.Transfertraining.Strategiesofsecondlanguagelearning.(避免等)Strategiesofsecondlanguagelearning.(為方便不要復數(shù)等)Overgeneralizationofthetargetlanguagelinguisticmaterial.ThebeginningandtheendofILaredefinedrespectivelyaswheneveralearnerfirstattemptstoconveymeaningintheL2andwheneverdevelopment“permanently”stops,buttheboundariesarenotentirelyclear.Identificationoffossilizationisevenmorecontroversial.Monitormodel(Theinputhypothesismodel)Whichfivehypotheses(假定)doesthemodelconsistof?(課本P45?。?！)Acquisition-learninghypothesisMonitorhypothesisNaturalorderhypothesisInputhypothesisAffectivefilterhypothesisWhatisLADinthismodel?TheLADismadeupofthenaturallanguagelearningabilitiesofthehumanmind,totallyavailableinL1acquisition,availableinL2acquisitionaccordingtothelevelofthefilter.But,theprocessoflearning,unliketheprocessofacquisition,usesfacultiesofmindoutsidetheLAD.圖示W(wǎng)hatarepointsoftheconsensusofearlylinguisticstudyofSLA?WhatisbeingacquiredthroughadynamicinterlanguagesystemHowSLAtakesplaceinvolvescreativementalprocessesWhysomelearnersaremoresuccessfulthanothersrelatesprimarytotheage.WhatistheroleofgrammaraccordingtoKrashen?Theonlyinstanceinwhichtheteachingofgrammarcanresultinlanguageacquisition(andproficiency)iswhenthestudentsareinterestedinthesubjectandthetargetlanguageisusedasamediumofinstruction.UniversalgrammarDifferencesoflinguisticcompetenceandperformance(見Chapter1名詞解釋)WhatisUG?(名詞解釋)UGandL1acquisitionWhatthechildacquireisselectingparametricoptions.UnlikeSLA,attitudes,motivationsandsocialcontextplaynorole.UGandSLA,therearethreeimportantquestionsWhatistheinitialstateofSAL?Interference(看參數(shù)相同不相同);noagreementonaccesstoUGWhatisthenatureofILandhowdoesitchangeovertime?定參數(shù)的過程Languagefaculty;positive/negativeevidence(起作用);constructionism;fossilizationWhatisthefinalstateinSLA?(P52五個達不到的原因)Functionalapproaches(systemiclinguistics)Whatarethefourfunctionalapproaches?TheyareSystemicLinguistics;FunctionalTypology;Function-to-formmapping;Informationorganization.WhatisSystemicLinguistics(系統(tǒng)功能語言學)?DevelopedbyHillidayinthelate1950s,itisamodelforanalyzinglanguageintermsoftheinterrelatedsystemsofchoicesthatareavailableforexpressingmeaning.兒童的語言體系是一個意義體系，語言是從意義體系逐漸發(fā)展而來，經(jīng)歷過有簡單到復雜的過程。不同有不同意義，根據(jù)需要選擇最佳的（紅綠燈）。Whatacquirebylanguagelearnersismeaningpotential.Therearesevenfunctionsoflanguage.(P53)Systemiclinguistsadvancefourtheoreticalclaimsaboutlanguage:Thatlanguageuseisfunctional;Thatitsfunctionistomakemeanings;Thatthesemeaningsareinfluencedbythesocialandcontextinwhichtheyareexchanged.Thattheprocessofusinglanguageisasemioticprocess,aprocessofmakingmeaningsbychoosing.Allofthefunctionalapproachesdiscussedherebasicallyagreeonthefollowing:WhatisbeingacquiredinSLAisasystemforconveyingmeaning,Howlanguageisacquiredimportantlyinvolvescreativelearnerinvolvementincommunication,andUnderstandingofSLAprocessesisimpossibleiftheyareisolatedfromcircumstancesofuse.Chapter4thepsychologyofsecondlanguageacquisitionLateralization:differentspecificationoftwohalvesofthebrain.Forexample,thelefthemispherebecomesspecializedformostlanguageactivity,manybelieveduringacriticalperiodforlanguagedevelopment.Criticalperiodhypothesis(臨界期假設):theclaimthatchildrenhavetheonlyalimitednumberofyearsduringwhichtheycanacquiretheirL1flawlessly;iftheysufferbraindamagetothelanguageareas,brainplasticityinchildhoodwouldallowotherareasofthebraintotakeoverthelanguagefunctionsofthedamagedarea,butbeyondacertainage,normallanguagedevelopmentwouldnotbepossible.ThisconceptiscommonlyextendedtoSLAaswell,intheclaimthatonlychildrenarelikelytoachievenativeornear-nativeproficiencyinL2.Informationprocessing(IP):acognitiveframeworkwhichassumesthatSLA(likelearningofotherdomains)proceedsfromcontroltoautomaticprocessingandinvolvesprogressivereorganizationofknowledge.Controlledprocessing:raninitialstageofthelearningprocessthatdemandslearner’sattention.Automaticprocessing:afteraninitialstageofcontrolprocessing,automaticprocessingisastageinlearningthatrequireslessmental“space”andattentioneffortonthelearner’spart.Reconstructing:thereorganizationofknowledgethattakeplaceinthecentralprocessingstageofinformationprocessing.Input:whateversampleofL2leanerexposeto.Output:inSLA,thelanguagethatlearnersproduceinspeech/signorinwriting.U-shapeddevelopment:asequenceofacquisitionforelementsofbothL1andL2wherelearneruseaninitiallycorrectformsuchaspluralfeet,thenanincorrectfoots.Finally,learnersreturntofeetwhentheybegintoacquireexceptionstothepluralinflectionrule.Connectionism:acognitiveframeworkforexplaininglearningprocesses,beginninginthe1980sandbecomingincreasinglyinfluential.ItassumesthatSLAresultsfromincreasingstrengthofassociationsbetweenstimulusandresponse.Aptitude:anindividualsetofcharacteristicswhichcorrelatewithsuccessinlanguagelearning.Motivation:aneedanddesiretolearn.Cognitivestyle:anindividual’spreferredwayofprocessing:i.e.ofperceiving,conceptualizing,organizingandrecallinginformation.Learningstrategies:thebehaviorandtechniquesthatindividualsadoptintheeffortstolearnL2.Inpsychologicalrespective,whatarethethreefoci?Whatisstressedineach?First,itfocusonlanguageandbrain,addressingwhatisbeingacquiredinaphysicalsense;second,itfocusesonthelearningprocess(IPandconnectionism),addressinghowacquisitiontakesplace.Finally,itfocusesonthedifferencesonlearners,addressingthequestionofwhysomeL2learnersaremoresuccessfulthanothers.ItappearsthatL1andL2arestoredinsomewhatdifferentareasofthebrain,andtherighthemispheremightbemoreinvolvedinL2thanL1.Age/lessplasticity;howindependentarethelanguagesofmultilingualspeakers?(coordinate,compoundandsubordinate)WhatarethethreestagesofIP?Whatmustlearnersdotomakeinputavailableforprocessing?Theyareinput,centralprocessingandoutput.(Centralprocessingistheheartofthemodel,wherelearningoccurs,fromcontrolledtoautomaticprocessingandwherereconstructingtakesplace.)|Learnersmustnoticeorpayattentiontoinputtomakeitavailableforprocessing;thiskindofinputiscalledintake.|SwaincontendsthatoutputisnecessaryforsuccessfulL2learningbecauseithelpsdevelopautomaticitythroughpracticeandbecauseithelpslearnersnoticeintheirownknowledge.(區(qū)別于monitormodel中的只要有enoughcomprehensiveinput就可以了)Whatarethetheoriesregardingorderofacquisition?Theyaremultidimensionalmodel(P76)andprocessabilitytheory.Whatiscompetitionmodel?ItisafunctionalapproachtoSLAwhichassumesthatalllinguisticperformanceinvolves“mapping”betweenexternalformandinternalfunction.(根據(jù)語境來選擇son的用詞)Theconnectionistapproachtolearningfocusesontheincreasingstrengthofassociationsbetweenstimuliandresponse,consideringlearningachangeinthestrengthoftheseassociations.Thedifferencesbetweenlearnersareage(P82),sex,aptitude,motivation,cognitivestyle,personality,andlearningstrategies.MotivationlargelydeterminesthelevelofeffortwhichlearnersexpendatvariousstagesintheirL2development,oftenakeytoultimatelevelofproficiency.Twotypesofmotivationareintegratedandinstrumentalmotivation(融和型動機和工具型動機).ThereisahighcorrelationbetweenstrengthofmotivationandlevelofL2achievement.Whatiscognitivestyle?Cognitivestylereferstoindividuals’preferredwayofinformationprocessing,i.e.ofperceiving,conceptualizing,organizing,andrecallinginformation.Cognitivestyleiscloselyrelatedtoandinteractswithpersonalityfactorsandlearningstrategies.Among5pairsoftraitsincognitivestyleconcerningL2proficiency(P87),thefield-dependent/field-independentanddeductive/inductivearemostfrequentlyreferredtoinSLA.Whatisthedifferencebetweenbottom-upandtop-downprocessing?Deductive(演繹)ortop-downprocessingbeginswithapredictionorruleandthenappliesittointerpretparticularinstancesofinput.Inductive(歸納)orbottom-upprocessingbeginswithexamininginputtodiscoversomepatternandthenformulatesageneralizationorrulethataccountsforitandthattheninturnbeapplieddeductively.(inductive是aptitude四種能力之一)10PairsofPersonalityTraitsAnxiousSelf-confidentRisk-avoidingRisk-takingShyAdventuresomeIntrovertedExtrovertedInner-directedOther-directedReflectiveImpulsiveImaginativeUninquisitiveCreativeUncreativeEmpatheticInsensitivetoothersTolerantofambiguityClosure-orientedWhatistheAtypologyoflanguage-learningstrategies?WhatarethegoodLearnerTraitsin

L2LearningStrategies?TheyareMeta-cognitivestrategy,cognitivestrategyandsocial/affectivestrategy.Meta-cognitivestrategiesarethosewhichattempttoregulatelanguagelearningbyplanningandmonitoring.Cognitivestrategiesmakeuseofdirectanalysisoflinguisticmaterial.Social/affectivestrategiesinvolveinteractionwithothers.1)Concernforlanguageform(butalsoattentiontomeaning);2)Concernforcommunication;3)Activetaskapproach;4)Awarenessofthelearningprocess;5)Capacitytousestrategiesflexiblyinaccordancewithtaskrequirements.Chapter5socialcontextsofsecondlanguageacquisitionCommunicativecompetence:definedas“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicateappropriatelywithinaparticularlanguagecommunity”Languagecommunity:agroupofpeoplewhoshareknowledgeofacommonlanguageatleasttosomeextent.Foreignertalk:speechL1speakersaddressedtol2speakersthatdiffersinsystematicwaysfromlanguageaddressedtonativeorveryinfluentspeakers.(themodifiedvarietyP106includinginputmodificationandinteractivemodification)Directcorrection:explicitstatementsaboutincorrectlanguageuse.Indirectcorrection:implicitfeedbackaboutinappropriatelanguageuse,suchasclarificationrequestswhenthelistenerhasactuallyunderstoodtheutterance.Interactionhypothesis:theclaimthatmodificationsandcollaborativeeffortswhichtakeplaceinsocialinteractionfacilitateSLAbecausetheycontributetotheaccessibilityofinputofmentalprocessing.Symbolicmediation:alinkbetweenaperson’scurrentmentalstateandhigherorderfunctionsthatisprovidedprimarilybylanguage;consideredtheusualroutetolearning(oflanguage,andoflearningingeneral).PartofVygotsky’sSocioculturaltheory.Interpersonalinteraction:communicativeeventsandsituationswhichoccurbetweenpeople.Zoneofproximaldevelopment(ZPD):Thisisanareaofpotentialdevelopment,wherethelearnercanachievethatpotentialonlywithassistance.PartofVygotsky’sSocioculturaltheory.Scaffolding:verbalguidancewhichanexpertprovidestohelpalearnerperformanyspecifictask,ortheverbalcollaborationofpeerstoperformataskwhichwouldbetoodifficultforanyoneofthemindividualperformance.Intrapersonalinteraction:communicationthatoccurswithinanindividual’sownmind.Acculturation(文化適應):learningthecultureofL2communityandadaptingtothosevaluesandbehaviorpatterns.Additivebilingualism:theresultofSLAinsocialcontextswheremembersofadominantgrouplearnthelanguageofasubordinategroupwithoutthreattotheirL1competenceortotheirethnicidentity.Subtractivebilingualism:theresultofSLAinsocialcontextswheremembersofasubordinategrouplearnthedominantlanguageasL2andaremorelikelytoexperiencesomelossofethnicidentityandattrition(消耗)ofL1skills—especiallyiftheyarechildren.Whatarethetwolevelsthataffectlanguagelearning?Themicrosocialfocusdealswiththepotentialeffectsofdifferentimmediatelysurroundingcircumstances,whilethemacrosocialfocusrelatesSLAtobroadercultural,political,andeducationalenvironments.Insocialperspective,whatisL1andL2learning?L1learningforchildrenisanintegralpartoftheirsocializationintotheirnativelanguagecommunity;L2learningmaybepartofsecondculturelearningandadaptation,buttherelationshipofSLAtosocialandculturallearningdiffersgreatlywithcircumstances.MicrosocialfactorsVariationinlearnerlanguageWhichvariablefeatureoccursintheproductionofanyonespeakerdependslargelyonthecommunicativecontextsinwhichithasbeenlearnedandisused.Therearethreecommunicativecontexts:linguistic,psychological,andmicrosocialcontexts.(P103)InputandinteractionFromasocialperspective,interactionisgenerallyseenasessentialinprovidinglearnerswithquantityandqualityofexternallinguisticinputwhichisrequiredforinternalprocessing.NatureofinputmodificationNatureofinteractionalmodificationFeedbackIntaketocognitiveprocessing(interactionhypothesis)TheSocioculturaltheory(SCT)(Interactionasthegenesisoflanguage自己組織語言)InterpersonalinteractionZoneofproximaldevelopmentScaffoldingIntrapersonalinteraction;privatespeech/innerspeechMacrosocialfactorsGlobalandnationalstatusofL1andL2BoundariesandidentitiesInstitutionalforcesandconstraintsSocialcategories(age,sex,ethnicity,educationlevel,occupation,etc.)Additivebilingualism/subtractivebilingualismCircumstancesoflearningPrioreducationalexperienceLearner’differencesincognitivestyleandlearningstrategiesInformalorformallearning/naturalisticorinstructedlearningWhatisthedifferencebetweencommunicativecompetenceandlinguisticcompetence?Linguisticcompetenceistheunderlyingknowledgethataspeaker/hearerhasofalanguage.Communicativecompetenceisdefinedas“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicateappropriatelywithinaparticularlanguagecommunity”.Chapter6acquiringknowledgeforL2UsePragmaticcompetence:knowledgepeoplemustknowinordertointerpretandconveymeaningwithincommunicativesituations.Academiccompetence:theknowledgeneededbylearnerswhowanttousetheL2primarilytolearnothersubjects,orasatoolinscholarlyresearch,orasamediuminaspecificprofessionaloroccupationalfield.Interpersonalcompetence:knowledgerequiredoflearnerswhoplantousetheL2primarilyinface-to-facecontactwithotherspeakers.Cohesion:linguisticmarkingoflinksbetweenelementsofatext.Theseprovideunityandconsistencyofthought,logicandstructure.Genre:conventionalizedcategoriesandtypesofdiscourse.Bottom-upprocessing:achievinginterpretationandproductionoflanguagemeaningthroughpriorknowledgeofthelanguagesystemandphysicalcues.To