2012年考研英語試題及答案

2012年全國碩士研究生入學統(tǒng)一考試英語試題

SectionⅠUseofEnglish

Directions:

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmarkA,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

TheethicaljudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtjusticeshavebecomeanimportantissuerecently.Thecourtcannot1itslegitimacyasguardianoftheruleoflaw2justicesbehavelikepoliticians.Yet,inseveralinstances,justicesactedinwaysthat3thecourt’sreputationforbeingindependentandimpartial.

JusticeAntoninScalia,forexample,appearedatpoliticalevents.Thatkindofactivitymakesitlesslikelythatthecourt’sdecisionswillbe4asimpartialjudgments.Partoftheproblemisthatthejusticesarenot5byanethicscode.Attheveryleast,thecourtshouldmakeitself6tothecodeofconductthat7totherestofthefederaljudiciary.

Thisandothersimilarcases8thequestionofwhetherthereisstilla9betweenthecourtandpolitics.

TheframersoftheConstitutionenvisionedlaw10havingauthorityapartfrompolitics.Theygavejusticespermanentpositions11theywouldbefreeto12thoseinpowerandhavenoneedto13politicalsupport.Ourlegalsystemwasdesignedtosetlawapartfrompoliticspreciselybecausetheyaresoclosely14.

Constitutionallawispoliticalbecauseitresultsfromchoicesrootedinfundamentalsocial15likelibertyandproperty.Whenthecourtdealswithsocialpolicydecisions,thelawit16isinescapablypolitical—whichiswhydecisionssplitalongideologicallinesaresoeasily17asunjust.

Thejusticesmust18doubtsaboutthecourt’slegitimacybymakingthemselves19tothecodeofconduct.Thatwouldmakerulingmorelikelytobeseenasseparatefrompoliticsand,20,convincingaslaw.

1.[A]emphasize

[B]maintain

[C]modify

[D]recognize

2.[A]when

[B]lest

[C]before

[D]unless

3.[A]restored

[B]weakened

[C]established

[D]eliminated

4.[A]challenged

[B]compromised

[C]suspected

[D]accepted

5.[A]advanced

[B]caught

[C]bound

[D]founded

6.[A]resistant

[B]subject

[C]immune

[D]prone

7.[A]resorts

[B]sticks

[C]loads

[D]applies

8.[A]evade

[B]raise

[C]deny

[D]settle

9.[A]line

[B]barrier

[C]similarity

[D]conflict

10.[A]by

[B]as

[C]though

[D]towards

11.[A]so

[B]since

[C]provided

[D]though

12.[A]serve

[B]satisfy

[C]upset

[D]replace

13.[A]confirm [B]express [C] cultivate

[D]offer

14.[A]guarded

[B]followed

[C]studied

[D]tied

15.[A]concepts

[B]theories

[C]divisions

[D]conceptions

16.[A]excludes

[B]questions

[C]shapes

[D]controls

17.[A]dismissed

[B]released

[C]ranked

[D]distorted

18.[A]suppress

[B]exploit

[C]address

[D]ignore

19.[A]accessible

[B]amiable

[C]agreeable

[D]accountable

20.[A]byallmeans

[B]atallcosts

[C]inaword

[D]asaresult

SectionⅡReadingComprehension

PartADirections:

Readthefollowingfourtexts.Answerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosing[A],[B],[C]or[D].MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1．(40points)

Text1

Comeon—Everybody’sdoingit.Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationandhalfforcing,iswhatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.Itusuallyleadstonogood—drinking,drugsandcasualsex.ButinhernewbookJointheClub,TinaRosenbergcontendsthatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforcethroughwhatshecallsthesocialcure,inwhichorganizationsandofficialsusethepowerofgroupdynamicstohelpindividualsimprovetheirlivesandpossiblytheworld.

Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexamplesofthesocialcureinaction:InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogramcalledRageAgainsttheHazesetsouttomakecigarettesuncool.InSouthAfrica,anHIV-preventioninitiativeknownasLoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafesexamongtheirpeers.

Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.Hercritiqueofthelamenessofmanypubic-healthcampaignsisspot-on:theyfailtomobilizepeerpressureforhealthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawedunderstandingofpsychology.“Daretobedifferent,pleasedon’tsmoke!”pleadsonebillboardcampaignaimedatreducingsmokingamongteenagers-teenagers,whodesirenothingmorethanfittingin.Rosenbergarguesconvincinglythatpublic-healthadvocatesoughttotakeapagefromadvertisers,soskilledatapplyingpeerpressure.Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.JointheClubisfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationofthesocialandbiologicalfactorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.Themostglaringflawofthesocialcureasit’spresentedhereisthatitdoesn’tworkverywellforverylong.RageAgainsttheHazefailedoncestatefundingwascut.EvidencethattheLoveLifeprogramproduceslastingchangesis

limitedandmixed.

There’snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.Anemergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits—aswellasnegativeones—spreadthroughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.Thisisasubtleformofpeerpressure:weunconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.

Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucrats

canselectourpeergroupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.It’sliketheteacherwhobreaksupthetroublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwithbetter-behavedclassmates.Thetacticneverreallyworks.Andthat’stheproblemwithasocialcureengineeredfromtheoutside:intherealworld,asinschool,weinsistonchoosingourownfriends.

Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesas.

asupplementtothesocialcure [B]astimulustogroupdynamics

[C]anobstacletosocialprogress [D]acauseofundesirablebehaviors

Rosenbergholdsthatpublic-healthadvocatesshould.

recruitprofessionaladvertisers [B]learnfromadvertisers’experience

[C]stayawayfromcommercialadvertisers [D]recognizethelimitationsofadvertisements

Intheauthor’sview,Rosenberg’sbookfailsto.

adequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactors

effectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure

illustratethefunctionsofstatefunding

producealong-lastingsocialeffect

Paragraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviors.

isharmfultoournetworksoffriends [B]willmisleadbehavioralstudies

[C]occurswithoutourrealizingit [D]canproducenegativehealthhabits

Theauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureis.

harmful [B]desirable

[C]profound [D]questionable

Text2

Adealisadeal—except,apparently,whenEntergyisinvolved.Thecompany,amajorenergysupplierinNewEngland,provokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestate’sstrictnuclearregulations.

Instead,thecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnot:challengetheconstitutionalityofVermont’srulesinthefederalcourt,aspartofadesperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It’sastunningmove.

Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002,whenthecorporationboughtVermont’sonlynuclearpowerplant,anagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionofreceivingstateapprovalforthesale,thecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006,thestatewentastepfurther,requiringthatanyextensionoftheplant’slicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature’sapproval.Then,too,thecompanywentalong.

EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitments,oritsimplydidn’tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidents,includingthepartialcollapseofacoolingtowerin2007andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakage,raisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee’ssafetyandEntergy’smanagement—especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.EnragedbyEntergy’sbehavior,theVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyearagainstallowinganextension.

Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalidbecauseofthe2006legislation,andthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerovernuclearissues.

Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereastheSupremeCourthas

ruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpower,legalscholarssaytheVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.Certainly,therearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptitsword,thatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint.

ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadysodamagedthatithasnothinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthereshouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapublictrust.Entergyruns11otherreactorsintheUnitedStates,includingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafely,thecompanyhasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)reviewsthecompany’sapplication,itshouldkeepinmindwhatpromisesfromEntergyareworth.

Thephrase“renegingon”(Line3,Paragraph1)isclosestinmeaningto.

condemning [B]reaffirming [C]dishonoring [D]securing

Byenteringintothe2002agreement,Entergyintendedto.

obtainprotectionfromVermontregulators.

seekfavorfromthefederallegislature.

acquireanextensionofitsbusinesslicense.

getpermissiontopurchaseapowerplant.

AccordingtoParagraph4,Entergyseemstohaveproblemswithits.

managerialpractices [B]technicalinnovativeness

[C]financialgoals [D]businessvision

Intheauthor’sview,theVermontcasewilltest.

Entergy’scapacitytofulfillallitspromises

thenatureofstates’patchworkregulations

thefederalauthorityovernuclearissues

thelimitsofstates’powerovernuclearissues

Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat.

Entergy’sbusinesselsewheremightbeaffected.

theauthorityoftheNRCwillbedefied.

EntergywillwithdrawitsPlymouthapplication.

Vermont’sreputationmightbedamaged.

Text3

lntheidealizedversionofhowscienceisdone,factsabouttheworldarewaitingtobeobservedandcollectedbyobjectiveresearcherswhousethescientificmethodtocarryouttheirwork.Butintheeverydaypracticeofscience,discoveryfrequentlyfollowsanambiguousandcomplicatedroute.Weaimtobeobjective,butwecannotescapethecontextofouruniquelifeexperience.Priorknowledgeandinterestsinfluencewhatweexperience,whatwethinkourexperiencesmean,andthesubsequentactionswetake.Opportunitiesformisinterpretation,error,andself-deceptionabound.

Consequently,discoveryclaimsshouldbethoughtofasprotoscience.Similartonewlystakedminingclaims,theyarefullofpotential.Butittakescollectivescrutinyandacceptancetotransformadiscoveryclaimintoamaturediscovery.Thisisthecredibilityprocess,throughwhich

theindividualresearcher’sme,here,nowbecomesthecommunity’sanyone,anywhere,anytime.Objectiveknowledgeisthegoal,notthestartingpoint.

Onceadiscoveryclaimbecomespublic,thediscovererreceivesintellectualcredit.But,unlikewithminingclaims,thecommunitytakescontrolofwhathappensnext.Withinthecomplexsocialstructureofthescientificcommunity,researchersmakediscoveries;editorsandreviewersactasgatekeepersbycontrollingthepublicationprocess;otherscientistsusethenewfindingtosuittheirownpurposes;andfinally,thepublic(includingotherscientists)receivesthenewdiscoveryandpossiblyaccompanyingtechnology.Asadiscoveryclaimworksitswaythroughthecommunity,theinteractionandconfrontationbetweensharedandcompetingbeliefsaboutthescienceandthetechnologyinvolvedtransformsanindividual’sdiscoveryclaimintothecommunity’scrediblediscovery.

Twoparadoxesexistthroughoutthiscredibilityprocess.First,scientificworktendstofocusonsomeaspectofprevailingknowledgethatisviewedasincompleteorincorrect.Littlerewardaccompaniesduplicationandconfirmationofwhatisalreadyknownandbelieved.Thegoalisnew-search,notre-search.Notsurprisingly,newlypublisheddiscoveryclaimsandcrediblediscoveriesthatappeartobeimportantandconvincingwillalwaysbeopentochallengeandpotentialmodificationorrefutationbyfutureresearchers.Second,noveltyitselffrequentlyprovokesdisbelief.NobelLaureateandphysiologistAlbertSzent-Gyorgyioncedescribeddiscoveryas“seeingwhateverybodyhasseenandthinkingwhatnobodyhasthought.”Butthinkingwhatnobodyelsehasthoughtandtellingotherswhattheyhavemissedmaynotchangetheirviews.Sometimesyearsarerequiredfortrulynoveldiscoveryclaimstobeacceptedandappreciated.

lntheend,credibility“happens”toadiscoveryclaim—aprocessthatcorrespondstowhatphilosopherAnnetteBaierhasdescribedasthecommonsofthemind.“Wereasontogether,challenge,revise,andcompleteeachother’sreasoningandeachother’sconceptionsofreason.”

Accordingtothefirstparagraph,theprocessofdiscoveryischaracterizedbyits.

uncertaintyandcomplexity [B]misconceptionanddeceptiveness

[C]logicalityandobjectivity [D]systematicnessandregularity

ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2thatthecredibilityprocessrequires.

strictinspection [B]sharedefforts

[C]individualwisdom [D]persistentinnovation

Paragraph3showsthatadiscoveryclaimbecomescredibleafterit.

hasattractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublic

hasbeenexaminedbythescientificcommunity

hasreceivedrecognitionfromeditorsandreviewers

hasbeenfrequentlyquotedbypeerscientists

AlbertSzent-Gyorgyiwouldmostlikelyagreethat.

scientificclaimswillsurvivechallenges [B] discoveries today inspire futureresearch

[C]effortstomakediscoveriesarejustified [D]scientificworkcallsforacriticalmind

Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleofthetext?

NoveltyasanEngineofScientificDevelopment.

CollectiveScrutinyinScientificDiscovery.

EvolutionofCredibilityinDoingScience.

ChallengetoCredibilityattheGatetoScience.

Text4

IfthetradeunionistJimmyHoffawerealivetoday,hewouldprobablyrepresentcivilservants.WhenHoffa’sTeamsterswereintheirprimein1960,onlyoneintenAmericangovernmentworkersbelongedtoaunion;now36％do.In2009thenumberofunionistsinAmerica’spublicsectorpassedthatoftheirfellowmembersintheprivatesector.InBritain,morethanhalfofpublic-sectorworkersbutonlyabout15%ofprivate-sectoronesareunionized.

Therearethreereasonsforthepublic-sectorunions’thriving.First,theycanshutthingsdownwithoutsufferingmuchinthewayofconsequences.Second,theyaremostlybrightandwell-educated.AquarterofAmerica’spublic-sectorworkershaveauniversitydegree.Third,theynowdominateleft-of-centrepolitics.Someoftheirtiesgobackalongway.Britain’sLaborParty,asitsnameimplies,haslongbeenassociatedwithtradeunionism.Itscurrentleader,EdMiliband,oweshispositiontovotesfrompublic-sectorunions.

Atthestateleveltheirinfluencecanbeevenmorefearsome.MarkBaldassareofthePublicPolicyInstituteofCaliforniapointsoutthatmuchofthestate’sbudgetispatrolledbyunions.Theteachers’unionskeepaneyeonschools,theCCPOAonprisonsandavarietyoflaborgroupsonhealthcare.

lnmanyrichcountriesaveragewagesinthestatesectorarehigherthanintheprivateone.Buttherealgainscomeinbenefitsandworkpractices.Politicianshaverepeatedly“backloaded”public-sectorpaydeals,keepingthepayincreasesmodestbutaddingtoholidaysandespeciallypensionsthatarealreadygenerous.

Reformhasbeenvigorouslyopposed,perhapsmostegregiouslyineducation,wherecharterschools,academiesandmeritpayallfaceddrawn-outbattles.Eventhoughthereisplentyofevidencethatthequalityoftheteachersisthemostimportantvariable,teachers’unionshavefoughtagainstgettingridofbadonesandpromotinggoodones.

Asthecosttoeveryoneelsehasbecomeclearer,politicianshavebeguntoclampdown.InWisconsintheunionshaveralliedthousandsofsupportersagainstScottWalker,thehardlineRepublicangovernor.Butmanywithinthepublicsectorsufferunderthecurrentsystem,too.

JohnDonahueatHarvard’sKennedySchoolpointsoutthatthenormsofcultureinWesterncivilservicessuitthosewhowanttostayputbutisbadforhighachievers.TheonlyAmericanpublic-sectorworkerswhoearnwellabove$250,000ayearareuniversitysportscoachesandthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.Bankers’fatpaypacketshaveattractedmuchcriticism,butapublic-sectorsystemthatdoesnotrewardhighachieversmaybeamuchbiggerproblemforAmerica.

Itcanbelearnedfromthefirstparagraphthat.

Teamstersstillhavealargebodyofmembers

JimmyHoffausedtoworkasacivilservant

unionshaveenlargedtheirpublic-sectormembership

thegovernmenthasimproveditsrelationshipwithunionists

WhichofthefollowingistrueofParagraph2?

Public-sectorunionsareprudentintakingactions.

Educationisrequiredforpublic-sectorunionmembership.

LaborPartyhaslongbeenfightingagainstpublic-sectorunions.

Public-sectorunionsseldomgetintroublefortheiractions.

ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4thattheincomeinthestatesectoris.

illegallysecured [B]indirectlyaugmented

[C]excessivelyincreased [D]fairlyadjusted

TheexampleoftheunionsinWisconsinshowsthatunions.

oftenrunagainstthecurrentpoliticalsystem

canchangepeople’spoliticalattitudes

maybeabarriertopublic-sectorreforms

aredominantinthegovernment

JohnDonahue’sattitudetowardsthepublic-sectorsystemisoneof.

disapproval [B]appreciation [C]tolerance [D]indifference

PartBDirections:

Inthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41—45,choosethemostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblanks.Therearetwoextrachoices,whichdonotfitinanyoftheblanks.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowandrealisethatyouareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinnerthanabrown-paperenvelope,oryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue.

Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,entrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunctionasatypewriterandprintingpress,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,pianoandradio,themailaswellasthemailcarrier.(41) .

Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethatservesasthemodeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andplaceofpraiseandcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury’sculturemachine.

Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsoactwithcaution.

(42) .Icallitasecretwarfortworeasons.First,mostpeopledonotrealisethattherearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.Second,themajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhattheyaredoing.

Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddams,birdsmakenests.Yetforthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods—paintings,sculptureandarchitecture—andsuperfluousexperiences—music,literature,religionandphilosophy.(43) .

Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuckindownloadmode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidofproductionremains,withasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightlylargergroupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontent,andahugepercentageremainingcontenttojustconsume.(44) .

Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthattelevisionasksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton.

(45) .

Whatcountsasmeaningfuluploading?Mydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof

“stickiness”—creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.

Ofcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureandultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreatskills,butfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituentofhumanity.

Applicationsliketumblr,com,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,wordsandothermediaincreativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialtoaddstickinessbyamusing,entertainingandenlighteningothers—andengenderingmoreofthesame.

Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhadalsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday.

Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetweendownloadinganduploading—betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation—whoseoutcomewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine.

ThechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytooneformatbeingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplacedbyCDplayers.

Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthepasthalf-century,muchoftheworld’smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium—television—andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading.

Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflow,toencouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningfuluploading.

PartCDirections:

ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittencarefullyonANSWERSHEET2.（10points）

SincethedaysofAristotle,asearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthescientificenterprise.Insomeways,thisquestforcommonalitiesdefinesscience.Newton'slawsofmotionandDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferentphenomenaintoasingleexplicatoryframework.

(46)Inphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextreme,andseeksatheoryofeverything—asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.Itisbecominglessclear,however,thatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplification,giventhedimensionsanduniversesthatitmightentail.Nonetheless,unificationofsortsremainsamajorgoal.

Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciencestoo.(47)Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustification,forifallhumanssharecommonorigins,itseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomoreconstrainedbeginnings.Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtshipritualsmightallbeconsideredformsofsexualselection,perhapstheworld’slanguages,music,socialandreligiouscustomsandevenhistoryaregovernedbyuniversalfeatures.(48)Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmightenableustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehavioraroseandwhatguidesitinevolutionaryorcognitiveterms.

That,atleast,isthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublishedonlinetodaysuppliesarealitycheck.R