人類的語言學(xué)及人力資源流程手冊-HR工具書

標(biāo)準(zhǔn)日語課后練習(xí)翻譯及答案1-18課1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage語言的結(jié)構(gòu)特征Designfeatures------referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,creativity/productivity,displacement,cluturaltransmissionandinterchangeability.Designfeatures-----arefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages,suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.(指決定了人類語言性質(zhì)的特征.例如任意性,二重性,創(chuàng)造性,移位性,文化轉(zhuǎn)移性等.)

TheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures.Whatisarbitrariness?任意性a.arbitrariness【'ɑ?b?tr?r?n?s】----arbitrariness(任意性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(人類語言的本質(zhì)特征之一,指語言符號的形式與意義之間沒有自然的聯(lián)系.)

ItwasdiscussedbySaussurefirst.Thelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention.E.g.“house”uchi(Japanese)Mansion(French)房子(Chinese)arbitrarybetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning語言的音和義之間的任意性a.By“arbitrary”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.語言的意義和語音之間沒有邏輯關(guān)系。Agogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforagig.Languagethereforeislargelyarbitrary.b.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang””crash””roar””rumble””cakle”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.”onomatopoeia擬聲詞---wordsthatsoundlikethesoundstheydescribe那些發(fā)音像它們的描寫的聲音的詞c.somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitaryeither.“type”and”write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.arbitraryandonometopoeiceffectmayworkatthesametime.任意性和擬聲可以同時起作用。Eg.Themurmuroushauntoffliesonsummereves.夏日黃昏，群蠅嗡嗡地非。Arbitraryatthesyntacticlevel句法上的任意性Accordingtosystematic-functionalistsandAmericanfunctionlists,languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.對于系統(tǒng)功能語言學(xué)家和美國功能語言學(xué)家來說，語言在句法上是非任意的。Syntax-----itreferstothewaysthatsentencesareconstructedaccordingtothegrammarofarrangement.句法就是依據(jù)語法安排造句之法。Aribrtaryandconvention任意性和約定性Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.語言學(xué)上的符號和它的意義之間是約定俗成的關(guān)系。Theothersideofcoinofarbitrariness,namely,conventionality.任意性的相反面，即約定性。conventionality----Itmeansthatinanylanguagetherearecertainsequencesofsoundsthathaveaconventionallyacceptedmeaning.Thosewordsarecustomarilyusedbyallspeakerswiththesameintendedmeaningandunderstoodbyalllistenersinthesameway.Arbitrainessoflangaugemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityoflanguagemakeslearningalanguagelaborious.任意性賦予語言潛在的創(chuàng)造力，而語言的約定性又使學(xué)習(xí)語言變得費力。Therearetwodifferentschoolsofbeliefconcerningarbitrariness.Mostpeople,especiallystructurallinguistsbelievethatlanguageisarbitrarybynature.Otherpeople,however,holdthatlanguageisiconic,thatis,thereisadirectrelationorcorrespondencebetweensoundandmeaning,suchasonomatopoeia.(cuckoo;crash)Forthemajorityofanimalsignals,theredoesappeartobeaclearconnectionbetweentheconveyedmessageandthesignalusedtoconveyit,Andforthem,thesetsofsignalsusedincommunicationisfinite.b.duality【dju?'?l?t?】(二重性):---onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchasunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.(人類語言的本質(zhì)特征之一,指擁有兩層結(jié)構(gòu)的這種特性,底層結(jié)構(gòu)是上層結(jié)構(gòu)的組成成分,每層都有自身的組合規(guī)則.)duality----languageissimultaneouslyorganizedattwolevelsorlayers,namely,thelevelofsoundsandthatofmeaning.thehigherlevel----wordswhicharemeaningfulthelowerorthebasiclevel----soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowords.Dog:woof(butnot“w-oo-f”)Thisdualityoflevelsis,infact,oneofthemosteconomicalfeaturesofhumanlanguage,sincewithalimitedsetofdistinctsoundswearecapableofproducingaverylargenumberofsoundcombinations(e.g.words)whicharedistinctinmeaning.Theprincipleofeconomy經(jīng)濟原則Linguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagesofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.).Atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHUZHUANGLIN,languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructuresortwolevels,oneofsoundandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticwords/units,andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.這些意義單位組成無數(shù)個句子。(Notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanmialcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality.Totalkaboutdualitywemustnoticethatlanguageishierarchical.說到語言的二重性，我們必須注意語言的等級性。lic.Creativity----languageisresourceful.Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(novelutterancesarecontinuallybeingcreated.)non-humansignals,ontheotherhand,appearstohavelittleflexibility.creativity(創(chuàng)造性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,bycreativitywemeanlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.(指語言的能產(chǎn)性,因為語言有二重性和遞歸性.)productivity----productivityreferstotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.人們能夠利用語言中原有的規(guī)則來理解從未碰到過的語言符號的特征。e.g.anexperimentofbeecommunication:Theworkerbee,normallyabletocommunicatethelocationofanectarsource,willfailtodosoifthelocationisreally‘new’.Inoneexperiment,ahiveofbeeswasplacedatthefootofaradiotowerandafoodsourceatthetop.Tenbeesweretakentothetop,shownthefoodsource,andsentofftotelltherestofthehiveabouttheirfind.Themessagewasconveyedviaabeedanceandthewholegangbuzzedofftogetthefreefood.Theyflowaroundinalldirections,butcouldn’tlocatethefood.Theproblemmaybethatbeecommunicationregardinglocationhasafixedsetofsignals,allofwhichrelatedtohorizontadistance.Thebeecannotcreatea‘new’messageindicatingverticaldistance.Noonehasneversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusproductivityisalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky)Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.創(chuàng)造性是人類語言的獨一無二的特征。d.displacement(移位性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichmeanshumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentcintimeandspace,atthemomentofcommunication.(指人類語言可以讓使用者來表示在說話時(時間和處所)并不存在的物體,時間和觀點.)Beecommunication:Whenaworkerbeefindsasourceofnectarandreturnstothehive,itcanperformacomplexdanceroutinetocommunicatetotheotherbeesthelocationofthisnectar.Dependingonthetypeofdance(rounddancefornearbyandtail-waggingdance,withvariabletempo,forfurtherawayandhowfar),Theotherbeescanworkputwherethisnewlydiscoveredfeastcanbefound.Beecommunicationhasdisplacementinanextremelylimitedform.However,itmustbethemostrecentfoodsource.Displacement,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealorunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.人類語言可以被用來指不在當(dāng)時當(dāng)?shù)匕l(fā)生的事情，這就使得人類能夠談?wù)撛S多事情而不受時空限制。Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeak,thatmeanslanguagehasthefeatureofdisplacement.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn’tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyforabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof“displacement”,butit’sanunspeakabletinysharee.Culturaltransmission----genetictransmissionYouacquirealanguageinaculturewithotherspeakersandnotfromparentalgenes.Theprocesswherebylanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextisdescribedasculturaltransmission.Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“l(fā)anguageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.（人類學(xué)習(xí)語言的能力有遺傳基礎(chǔ)，但任何詳細(xì)的語言系統(tǒng)都必須通過教授和學(xué)習(xí)才能獲得，這說明語言具有文化傳遞性，它不是靠人類的本能而獲得的。）Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.動物是靠其基因來傳遞其呼叫系統(tǒng)的。f.interchangeability互換性interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Thoughsomepeoplesuggestthatthereisdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot).Whenadogbarks,alltheneighboringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog/dogsis/are“speaking”andwhichlistening.WhatfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystem?Arbitrariness----asignofsophisticationonlyhumansarecapableof.Duality----afeaturetotallylackinginanyanimalcommunication.Creativity----animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.Displacement----noanimalcantalkaboutthingsremovedfromtheimmediatesituation.Culturaltransmission-----detailsofhumanlanguagesystemaretaughtandlearnedwhileanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytosendoutcertainsignalsasameansoflimitedcommunication.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem.Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“Americansignlanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidnotmakethelinguistscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notenenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttodoso.1.5functionsoflanguage語言的功能Jakobsondefinedthesixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,namely:speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.雅科布遜定義了言語行為的六個要素：說話者，受話者，語境，信息，語碼，接觸。Jakobsonestablishedawell-knownframeworkoflanguagefunctionsbasedonthesixkeyelementsofcommunication,namely:Referentialfunction-----toconveymessageandinformation所指功能：傳達(dá)信息Poeticfunction-----toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake詩學(xué)功能：完全就語言而語言Emotivefunction----toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions感情功能：表達(dá)態(tài)度、感覺和感情Cognitivefunction----topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties意動功能：通過命令和懇求去說服和影響他人Phaticfunction----toestablishcommunionwithothers交感功能：與他人建議交流Metalingualfunction-----toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings元語言功能：弄清意圖、詞語和意義Theycorrespondtosuchcommunicationelementsascontext,message,addresser,addressee,contactandcode.它們與一些交流活動的元素相對應(yīng)，如語境，信息，說話者，受話者，接觸和語碼等。Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehas:韓禮德提出語言元功能的理論，即語言有：Ideationalfunction----constructsamodelofexperienceandconstructslogicalrelations;概念功能：建構(gòu)了經(jīng)驗?zāi)Ｐ秃瓦壿嬯P(guān)系Interpersonalfunction-----enactssocialrelationships人際功能：反映了社會關(guān)系textualfunctions----createsrelevancetocontext.語篇功能：創(chuàng)立了語言與語境的關(guān)系Hallidayproposedsevencategoriesoflanguagefunctionsbyobservingchildlanguagedevelopment,thatis,instrumental,regulatory,representational,interactional,personal,heuristicandimaginative.他通過觀察兒童語言的發(fā)展提出了語言的七種功能，他們是工具功能，控制功能，表達(dá)功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教導(dǎo)功能和想象功能。ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptivevs.prescriptive描寫式”和“規(guī)定式”prescriptive(規(guī)定式):akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsareprescribedhowoughttobe,i.e.layingdownrulesforlanguageuse.(規(guī)定事情應(yīng)該是怎樣的.)

descriptive(描寫式):akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsarejustdescribed.(描述事情是怎樣的.)Descriptivevs.prescriptive“描寫式”和“規(guī)定式”Theyrepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Whatmakestraditionalgrammardifferentfrommodenlinguistics?ModernlinguisticsstartedwiththepublicationofF.deSaussure’sbook“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”intheearly20thcentury.SoSaussureisoftendescribedas“fatherofmodernlinguistics”.Thegeneralapproachtraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguagebeforethatisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Theydifferinseveralbasicways:Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Alinguistisinterestedinwhatissaid,notinwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesof“correctness”.Secondly,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.Tomodernlinguists,itisunthinkabletojudgeonelanguagebystandardsofanother.Theyaretryingtosetupauniversalframework,butthatwouldbebasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguagesusedbymankind.1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronic“共時”和“歷時synchronic(共時的):akindofdescriptionwhichtakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent),asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.(共時的描寫以一個固定的時間(通常,但非必須是現(xiàn)在)為它的觀察角度,大多數(shù)的語法書屬于此類型.)

.diachronic(歷時的):studyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.(在語言的歷史過程中研究語言.)Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.e.g(1)anessayentitled“OnthesueofTHE”,forexample,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalernation.(2)astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakepeare’stimeandwouldbeasynchronicstudy,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.1.9.3langue&parole“語言”和“言語”langue(語言):thelinguisticcompetenceofthespeaker.(說話者的語言能力.)

parole(言語):theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances).(語言的實際現(xiàn)象或語料.)ThedistinctionwasmadebytheSwisslinguistSaussureintheearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse,ortheactualoractualizedlanguage.語言是一個語言社會的所有成員共同使用的抽象語言系統(tǒng)。言語是對于這些抽象語言系統(tǒng)的實際運用。Whatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.(1)Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation.語言是抽象的，言語是具體的，是因人而異的。(2)Languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccruingevent.(3)Languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusntosuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportant,whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists.1.9.4Competenceandperformance語言能力和語言運用competence(語言能力):alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.(一個語言使用者關(guān)于語言系統(tǒng)規(guī)則的基本理解.)

performance(語言應(yīng)用):theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.(指在具體場景中語言的真實使用.)ThedistinctionisdiscussedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“compentence”istheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage理想的語言使用者的抽象語言知識and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterance,inlinguisticcommunication.語言使用者在語言交際中對這種抽象語言知識的實際運用。Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspearker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompentence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolediffertoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,F.de.Saussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticspointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissurespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.索緒爾的理論與喬姆斯基的理論的不同之處在于索緒爾是從語言的社會學(xué)角度來談?wù)撜Z言；而喬姆斯基是從語言的心理學(xué)角度來談?wù)撜Z言的。ConsonantsSpeechsoundsmaybeclassifiedintotwomajortypesintermsoftheirarticulatorycharacteristics.ThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledCONSONANTS.Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheair-streampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledVOWELS.Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords封閉類詞和開放類詞Thedistinctionofgrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsleadstodistinctionof“colsed-class”wordsand“open-class”words.語法詞和詞匯詞的區(qū)別導(dǎo)致了封閉詞類和開放詞類的區(qū)別。Closed-classword(封閉詞類):------awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded,suchaspronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc..(封閉詞類的成員數(shù)目是確定的,有限的.新成員不會有規(guī)律地增加.例如代詞,介詞,連詞,冠詞等.)open-classword(開放類詞):-------awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andmanyadverbs.(開放類詞的成員數(shù)目原則上是無窮的,無限的.例如名詞,動詞,形容詞和多數(shù)副詞.)

Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?

InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open-classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.SemantictriangleProposedbyOgden&Richardsintheir“TheMeaningofMeaning”.Theysawtherelationshipbetweenthewordandthethingitreferstoisnotdirect.It’smediatedbyconcept.thoughtorreferencesymbolreferentInthisdiagram,thesymbolorformreferstolinguisticelements(words,phrases),thereferentreferstothethingsintherealworld,andthoughtorreferencerefersto“concept”.e.g.Thedogovertherelooksunfriendly.Theword“dog”isdirectlyassociatedwithacertainconceptinourmind,i.e.whata“dog”islike,butitisnotdirectlylinkedtothereferent(theparticulardog)inthisparticularcase.Thus,thesymbolofawordsignifiesthingbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofalanguage,andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence,etc.),the“referent”referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Thus,thesymbolawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”,associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage.The“concept”thusconsideredismeaningoftheword.語義三角形最大的問題在于詞語與所指事物沒有必然的聯(lián)系。同一個事物可能或者可以用不同的詞來表示。(1)Conceptualmeaning------Logical,cognitive,ordenotationcontent邏輯的，認(rèn)知的，或者外延的內(nèi)容conceptualmeaning:thecentralpartofmeaning,whichcontainslogical,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.Associativemeaning:聯(lián)想意義(2)Connotativemeaning------whatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagerefersto.內(nèi)涵意義：通過語言所指所傳達(dá)的意義(3)Socialmeaning-----whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse.社會意義：所傳達(dá)的關(guān)于語言使用的社會環(huán)境的意義(4)Affectivemeaning-----whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer.感情意義：所傳達(dá)的關(guān)于說話人或作者感情，態(tài)度方面的意義(5)Reflectedmeaning------whatiscommunicatedthroghtassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.反射意義：通過聯(lián)系同一表達(dá)式的其他意思所傳達(dá)的意義(6)Collocativemeaning------whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.搭配意義：通過聯(lián)想詞語的常用搭配而傳達(dá)的意義。(7)Thematicmeaning----whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.主題意義：通過由順序和重音組織信息的方式所傳達(dá)的意義5.Leechsaysthatthefirsttypeofmeaning-----conceptualmeaning----makesupthecentralpart.Itis“denotative”inthatitisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orreferto.Inthissense,conceptualmeaingoverlapstoalargeextentwiththenotionofreference.利奇指出，意義的第一種類型----概念意義----構(gòu)成了意義的中心部分。這種意義是“外延“的，因為它關(guān)注詞和他所指事物之間的聯(lián)系。從這點看，概念意義在很大程度上與指稱相交叉。6．Philosophersuseconnotation,oppositetodenotation,tomeanthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.Forexample,thedenotationofhumanisanypersonsuchasJohnandMary,anditsconnotationis“biped”,“featherless”,“rational”,etc.哲學(xué)家們用內(nèi)涵和外延相對，表示詞所指實體的性質(zhì)。例如，人的外延是任何人，如約翰和瑪麗；內(nèi)涵是“兩足動物”“無羽毛的”“有理性的”等等。7.“connotative”-----referstosomeadditional,especiallyemotive,meaning.內(nèi)涵指的是一些附加的，尤其是感情的意義。denotation:thecoresenseofawordoraphradethatrelatesittophenomenaintherealworld.connotation:aterminacontrastwithdenotation,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.2.whatissenseandwhatisreference?Howaretheyrelated?.reference:theuseoflanguagetoexpressapropostion,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.sense:theliteralmeaningofawordoranexpression,independentofsituationalcontext.Sense------senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,whichisacollectionofsemanticmeanings,abstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdectionarycompilersareinterestedin.意義是詞匯意義的一個側(cè)面，它是指詞匯內(nèi)在的抽象，獨立于語境之外的意義，也是詞典字意。Reference----referenceiswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealphysical,itisamatteroftherelationshipbetweentheformandthereality,betweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.所指意義是詞匯意義的另一個側(cè)面，它是詞匯在特定的語境中所指稱的具體事物。所指也叫“參照”“或“指稱”，是指詞和它們所代表的客觀事物或現(xiàn)象的關(guān)系，它表現(xiàn)于一定的上下文之中。(1)linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.Forexample:Iwasoncebittenbyadog./Mindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.有著同樣意義的詞，在不同的情景中，它的所指也不相同。(2)linguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.Forexample:“morningstar”and“eveningstar.”有時所指相同，但意義卻不同。４．Sense&referencesenseandreferencearethetwotermsoftenencounteredinthestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense-----theinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;It’sabstractandde-contextualized.It’stheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Itisconcernedwiththeintra-linguisticrelations.Reference-----What