組織胚胎學(xué)課件(英)

Digestivegland

---smallgland:fundisgland,smallintestinalgland---largegland:salivarygland,pancreas,liver1.Salivarygland

1)Generalstructureofexocrinegland---Capsule:CT,whichseparatetheparenchymaintolobules---lobule:①acinus:a.serousacinus:structure:pyramidalorcuboidalroundbasally-locatedNapical:zymogengranule-acidophilicbasal:basophilic-RER,ribosomefunction:secretsalivaryamylaseb.mucousacinus:structure:pale-stained,slight-blue,flattenedNagainstthebasalmembranemucinogengranuleGolgi,RER,mitochondriac.mixedacinus:severalserouscellattachedtomucousacinus–serousdemilune②duct:intercalatedduct:simplesquamousepi.simplecuboidalepi.connectwithacinusb.striatedduct(secretoryduct):intralobulesimplecolumnarepi.:tallcell,acidophilicroundN,locatedatapicalpartlongitudinalstriation:plasmamembraneinfoldingc.interlobularductandmajorduct:simplecolumnarepi.orpseudostratifiedciliatedcolumnarepi.2)structuralfeatureofeachsalivaryglanda.

parotidgland:-serous-longintercalatedduct,shortstriatedductb.

submandibulargland:-mixed(mainlyserous,lessmucousandmixed)-shortintercalatedduct,longstriatedductc.

sublingualgland:-mixed(mainlymucous,moreserousandmixed)-moredemilunes,nointercalatedduct,under-developedstriatedduct*granularconvolutedtubule,GCT:---asegmentconvolutedductbetweenintercalatedductandstriatedductinsubmandibulargland---epithelialcell:pyramidalinshaped,withlargeNapicalcytoplasma:eosinophilicgranulesgranulescontain:i.

growthfactors-NGF,EGF,MGF,EGSF,EGFii.

homeostasisfactors:renin,Kallikrein,CSF,ACFiii.digestiveenzymes:amylase,ribonuclease,acidphosphataseiv.

intracellularregulatingfactor2.Pancreas

---capsule:CT,septa---parenchyma:/exocrinepancreas/endocrinepancreas1)exocrinepancreas---acinus:serous*centroacinarcell:small,palecellwithroundorovoidN,derivedfromepithelialcellofintercalatedduct---duct:longintercalatedduct---function:secretpancreaticliquid1-2L/D,PH7.8-8.4Digestiveenzymes:trypsinogen,chymotrypsinogen,amylaseandlipase2)endocrinepancreas(pancreasislet)---170.000-200.000,constituteabout1%oftotalpancreasvolume---75-500um---HE:cellsarrangedintocordwithCTrichinfenestratedcap.---EM:a.

Acell:20%.Largepolygonalinshaped,peripheral-distributedEM:secretoryG:large,190-310nm,roundwithdensecorefunction:secretglucogon-29aminoacidresiduesprotein↓glycogen→glucoseb.

Bcell:75%,small,centrally-distributedEM:secretoryG:differentdiameter,225-375nmwithoneorseveraldensecorefunction:secretinsulin-51amino-acidresiduesc.Dcell:

5%,ovoid,fusiform,peripheral-distributed,betweenA,BcellsEM:-gapjunctionwithA,Bcell-secretoryG:large,190-370nm,low-densitycorefunction:secretesomatostatintoinhibitthesecretingofA,B,PPcelld.PPcell:EM:secretegranule:small,110-170nmfunction:secretepancreaticpolypeptidetoinhibitthesecretingofpancreaticliquid,movementofvisceraandcontractionofgallbladdere.D1cell:2-5%,peripheral,irregularEM:small,140-190nm,function:secreteVIP(vasoactiveintestinalpeptide)f.Ccell:undifferentiatedcell3.Liver

---largest,2%ofbodyweight---capsule:DCT,insertintoparenchymatoseparatetheparenchymaintohepaticlobule---hepaticlobule---portalarea1)hepaticlobule:basicstructuralunit---500.000-1.000.000---2mmlong,1mminacrossD---polygonalprism(irregular)---structure:centralveinhepaticplate:radiatingarrangedhepaticsinusoid①

Centralvein:smallvein:endothelium+CT45umreceivethebloodfromsinusoids②

Hepaticplates---formedbysinglelayerofhepatocytesa.hepatocyte:LM:polygonal,20-30umeosinophilicN:-large,pale,round,centrally-located-1/4binucleateEM:mitochondria:1000-2000,20%totalvolumeRER:involveinthesynthesisofalbumin,fibrinogen,clottingfactor,lipoproteinandcomplementproteinSER:containenzymes-oxidoreductase(oxidase,reductase),hydrolase,transterase,synthetase,involveintheformationofbileandthemetabolismofadipose,glucoseandhormonesGolgiapparatus:involvein-formationofbile-process,condenseandstorageofproteins-formationoflysosomeLysosome:involveinphagocytosisactivityandmetabolismofbilirubinmicrobody:-round,0.2-1.0um-containcatalaseandperoxidaseinclusions:glycogen,lipiddroplet,pigmentb.bilecanaliculus:---cellmembraneofadjacenthepatocytesdepresstoformatubularsystembetweenhepatocytes---structure:silverpreparation:dark-browncolorednetwork0.5-1umMicrovillitightjunction,desmosome③Hepaticsinusoid---spacebetweenhepaticplates---structure:LM:9-12umendothelialcell:fenestrated,gap,plasmalemmalvesiclesRFcavity:-livermacrophage(Kupffercell)-largegranularlymphocyte:NKcellEM:Perisinusoidalspace:Dissespace-narrowspacebetweenendothelialcellandhepatocytes0.4umwidthbloodplasmamicrovilliRFfat-storingcell:*fat-storingcell:-irregular,withprocesses-EM:largelipiddroplets,RER,mito,Golgi-function:storageofvitaminA(E,K),synthesisofcollagen*Thethreekindsofdifferentsurfacesofhepatocytes---faceadjacentcelleachother:55%---facethesinusoids:35%---formbilecanaliculus:10%2)portalarea---areas(triangle-shapedorirregular-shaped)whereadjacenthepaticlobulesmeet---containsCTandseveralductsa.

interlobulararteries:

branchesofhepaticAsmallA:endothelium+3-4layersofSMb.

interlobularvein:branchesofportalveinsmallvein:endothelium+lessCTandsingleSMc.

interlobularbileduct:simplecuboidalorlowcolumnarepi.1.Components---nose---pharynx---larynx---trachea---bronchi---lung2.Tracheaandmainbronchi

threelayers1)

Mucosa:---epithelium:pseudostratifiedciliatedcolumnarepithelium---laminapropria:CT,containLC,PC,MC,BV,LV

Pseudostratifiedciliatedcolumnarepi.ciliatedcell:columnar,ciliagobletcellbasalcell:-pyramidal,basally-located-undifferentiatedcell→ciliatedcellorgobletcellbrushcell:-columnar,microvilli,-EM:RER,nog.-function:notveryclear,maybei.

becomeintociliatedcellii.receivesensorystimuli-epitheliodendriticsynapsediffuseneuroendocrinecell:-less,pyramidal-EM:dense-coreg.-smallgranulecellneuroepithelialbody:cell+NF-Function:secrethormonestoregulatecontractofSMandsecretionofglandi.5-hydroxytryptamine(serotonin)ii.calcitoniniii.enkephalin*clearbasementmembrane2)Submucosa:LCT,withBV,LVandNtrachealgland:mixeddiffuseLTandLN*SIgA=secretorycomponent(secretedbyepi.cell)+IgA(producedbyplasmacell)3)Adventitia:cartilagering:16-20“C”shapedcircularligament:elasticFSM-posteriorpart(membranepart):SM,elasticF,trachealgland3.Lung---pairedorgan,locatedinthoraciccavity1)Generalstructure:---capsule:viscerallayerofpleura-serousmembrane-CT+mesothelium---parenchyma:allbranchesofbronchiandalveoli(right3,left2)---interstitia:CT,BV,LV,N*branchi→intrapulmonarybronchialtree(lobarbronchialtree,segmentalbronchiandsmallbronchi)D<1mmD<0.5mm→bronchioles→terminalbronchioles→respiratorybronchioles→alveolarduct→alveolarsac→alveoli*pulmonarylobule:onebronchiolesanditsallbranchesandallalveoliconeorpyramidal-shaped:apexpointedtowardthehilumandbasal(1.0cminD)facedthesurfacemoreCTbetweenthem2)Conductingportion①fromlobarbronchitosmallbronchi---Regulationofsimplification:(gradually)mucosa:-epi.:becomethinner-gobletcell↓-laminapropria:thinner,SM↑submucosa:gland↓adventitia:cartilage→cartilage→decreasing②bronchiole:D<1mm---continuoustochangegobletcell,Gland,cartilage↓ordisappearsmoothmuscle↑,circularmucosaplica↑③terminalbronchiole:D<0.5mm---gobletcell,gland,cartilagedisappear---SM:formawholelayerofcircumferentialSM---Wall:simplecolumnarepi.:twotypesofcellsAlayerofSM

i.

ciliatedcellii.

secretingcell:ClaracellEM:dome-shapedapicalSERSecretingG:containsproteolytaseandoxidasefunction:dissolvethemucusbiologicalthansformationundifferentiatedcell→ciliatedcell3)respiratoryportion①

respiratorybronchiole---similartoterminalbronchioles:simpleciliatedcolumnarepi.smoothmuscle---placewhereconnectwithalveoli:gradualchangingsimplecuboidalepi.→simplesquamousepi.lessSM,elasticF②

alveolarduct:20-60alveoliconnectwithit---wall:hardtosee-openingpartbetweentwoalveolisimplecuboidalepi.orsquamousepi.SM:single,EF-knob-likedstructure③

alveolarsac:---manyalveoliopentoit---noproperwall,noknob-likedstructure④

alveoli:---polygonal,withopeningsac-0.2mminD,300-400million/perlung,totalarea:70-80mm2---wall:

epi.andbasallaminaalveolarseptum:CTwithBV,EFalveolurepi:---typeIalveolarcell:LM:flattened,0.2um,N:roundEM:plasmalemmalvesiclestightjunctionFunction:constitutetheblood-airbarrier---typeIIalveolarcell:scattered,5-8/peralveolesLM:cuboidalorround,withroundNpaler-stained,foamycytoplasmEM:secretinggranules:Osmiophilicmultilamellarbody-0.1-1.0um-contains:phospholipid,glycosaminoglycanandproteinmicrovilli,mito,lysosome,RER,GolgiFunction:i.secretingsurfactantii.

differentiatedintotypeIalveolarcellb.alveolarseptum:CTEFFibroblast,macrophage,plasmacell,mastcellLV,Ncapillary:endothelium+basementmembrane*Blood-airbarrier:thestructurethroughwhichthegaseousexchangetakesplace---0.2-0.5um---components:alayerofliquidtypeIalveolarcellandbasementMCTcapillaryendothelialcellandBMc.alveolarpore:10-15um---equalize(balance)theair-pressurebetweenalveoli---loberpneumonia-bacteriaorinflammatoryspreadthroughtheporeComponents---kidney:produceurine---ureters---bladder-cavityorgans,conduct,storeand---urethraremovetheurine---functions:removewasteproductsofmetabolismregulatethehomeostasissecretesomebioactivefactors-renin,erythropoietin*cavityorgans:mucosa:/epi-transitionalepi/laminapropriamuscularis:SMadventitia:CT2.Kidney---bean-shaped,10-12cminlength,5-6cminwidth,3-4cminthickness---hilum:BV,LV,Nanduretersenterorout*renalpelvis:funnel-shapedexpensionofupperendofureter*calyx:branchesofrenalpelvis

1)

Generalstructure:

---capsule:DCT---cortex:darkstained/medullaryray/corticallabyrinth---medulla:slightstained/renalpyramid/renalcolumns/renalpapillae:-minorcalyx-majorcalyx-pelvis*renallobe:onerenalpyramidanditsboundingcorticaltissue*renallobule:renaltissueincludingonemedullaryrayandcorticaltissuesurrounditAccordingtofunction,renalparenchymaismainlyconsistsofuriniferoustubules---parenchyma:/uriniferoustubules=renal

tubule+collectingtubules/renalcorpuscle=glomerulus+renalcapsule(beginningpartofrenaltubule)/nephron=renalcorpuscle+renaltubule---interstitium:CT,BV,N2)

Nephron:structuralandfunctionalunit,1,000,000---renalcorpuscle:corticalandjuxtamedullarynephron/renalglomerulus:/renalcapsule---renaltubule:/proximaltubule:-convolutedportion-straightportion/thinsegment/distaltubule:-straightportion-convolutedportion①

renalcorpuscle:spherical,200uminD,twopoles:vascularpoleandurinarypole---glomerulus:afferentarterioles→capillarynetwork→efferentarterioles*capillarynetwork:/endothelialcell:pore,70-90nm,nodiaphragm/basallamina:330nm*intraglomerularmesangium:

/mesangialcell:-small,irregular,withprocesses-smalldarkN-EM:RER,Golgi,lysosome,phagocyticvesicles,cytoskeleton-MF,MT,IFandsecretorygranules-functions:i.

producegroundsubstanceii.

phagocytosisiii.

contractiv.

secretereninandenzymes/matrix:-typeIVcollagen-glycoprotein:sulphatechondritin,heparinanddermatan---renalcapsule:twolayerscapsule–formedbybeginningpartofrenaltubulewhichisenlargedandinvaginated/parietallayer:simplesquamousepi./viscerallayer:podocytes/renelcapsularcavity:thespacebetweentwolayers

cellswithmanyprocesses(primaryandsecondaryprocesses-footprocesses)Footprocesses:interdigitatedwitheachotherandembracedthecapillaries,slitpore:-narrowintercellularspacebetweenfootprocesses-25nm,with4-6nmdiaphragm-slitmembrane*podocyte:---function:producefiltratebyfiltration*filtrationbarrierormembrane:thestructureforfiltrationiscalledfiltrationbarrierormembrane,including:fenestratedendothelialcell:negativeionsbasallamina:typeIVcollagen,proteoglycan,laminin-negativeions(sulphateheparin)slitmembrane-nephrin(sizeselectivefilter:negativeions

②

renaltubule:a.proximaltubule:50-60uminD,14mmlong---structure

LM:EM:pyramidalcuboidaleosinophilicroundNbrush-likedborder-microvilli(apicalcanaliculi)longitudinalstriation-plasmamembraneinfoldingnoclearboundary-lateralextension(richinNa+K+ATPase)Proximaltubule---Function:i.reabsorption:-85%Na+ionsandwater-Allofglucose,aminoacid,polypeptide,proteinsandvitamin-50%bicorbonatedsaltandsulphatesaltii.secreteH+,NH3,hippuricacidandcreatinineb.thinsegment:/10-15um,simplesquamousepi,/facilitatethepassageofwaterandions/reabsorbNa+andCl-and5%waterc.distaltubule:---structure:

LM:EM:cuboidalslight-stainedroundNnobrush-likedborder–lessmicrovilliwell-developedlongitudinalstriation–plasmamembraneinfoldingDistaltubulePlasmamembraneinfolding---function:i.

reabsorptionof8%water,Na+ionsii.

excretionofK+,H+,NH3

iii.regulatedbyaldosterone(adrenalgland)andantidiuretichormone(vasopressin)(pituitarygland)

3)

collectingtubule:archedcollectingtubulescorticalcollectiontubulesmedullarycollectiontubules-simplecuboidalepi.tosimplecolumnarepi.-slight–stained-haveclearboundary-reabsorb4%water4)

juxtaglomerularcomplex極周細(xì)胞a.juxtaglomerularcell:---agroupsofmodifiedSMcellofafferentarterioles---structure:-larger,cuboidalinshaped,withroundN-containsecretorygranules---function:

i.secreterenin→adrenalgland→aldosterone→bloodpressure↑↑angiotensinogen→angiotensinI→angiotensinII→contractionofSMofBV

ii.

secreteerythropoietintopromoteerythropoiesisb.maculadensa---agroupofcellsderivedfromepi.ofdistaltubule---cellbecomestaller,narrow,withroundNapicalpartarranged---cellshaveprocessesconnectingwithothercells---function:chemoreceptors-feeltheNa+ionsconcentrationc.extraglomerularmesangialcell(polarcushioncell)---similartointraglomerularmesangialcell---transfertheinformationd.peripolarcell---structure:EM:-microvilli-junctionalcomplexes-RER,Golgi,andgranules---function:regulatethereabsorptionandsecretionofrenaltubule5)renalinterstitial:CT---fibers:typeI,III,IVcollagen---matrix---cell:fibroblastmacrophage

lipid-ladeninterstitialcell:-stellatecellwithprocesses-osmiophiliclipiddroplets:-function:i.

involveinformationofFandmatrixii.

secretprostaglandin6)Bloodsupplytothekidneyi.Verylargebloodflow(1.2L/min)ii.Toformcap.twotimesiii.Glomerularcap.haveahighbloodpressureiv.Formvasarectaloopnearmedullaryloopv.Morelargerbloodflowinrenalcortex1.Components:---testis:producethemalegermcells-gametes(sperm)produceandrogen-testosterone---gernitalducts:storeandconductthespermepididymisductusdeferensejaculatoryduct---accessorygland:theirsecretionjoinintosemenseminalvesicleprostatebulbourethralglandpenis2.Testis1)Generalstructure:①Capsule:a.

tunicavaginalis:viscerallayer-serosab.

tunicaalbuginea:thick,DCT/mediastinumtestis:albugineabecamethickeratposterioraspect/septum:thinseptaextendradiatelyfrommediastinumtestistodividedtheparenchymaintolobule②Lobulea.

seminiferoustubule:/highlycoiled/30-70cmlong,150-250mminD/beginasfreeblindend→runtoposterior→becomeintostraighttubule(tubulesrectus)→entermediastinumtestis→retetestis→efferentduct→connectwithepididymalductb.testicularinterstitialtissue:LCTbetweenseminiferoustubule2)Seminiferoustubule:30-70cmlong,150-250uminD---specificstratifiedepithelium:spermatogenicepi.(seminiferousepi)spermatogeniccellsSertoliorsupportingcellmyoidcell:underbasallamina①Spermatogeniccell:---5-8layers---4typesofcellsa.spermatogonium---outerestlayer,onelayer---structure:/round,ellipsoidcell/12um/roundN,deepstained---classification:typeA:-darktypeA(Ad):ovoid,deep-stainedN,stemcell-PaletypeA(Ap):ovoid,pale-stainedN,differentiateintotypeBtypeB:roundN,chromatingranulesaredistributedundernucleusmembrane,divisionanddifferentiateintoprimaryspermatocyteb.primaryspermatocytes---diploid(2n)cell→duplicateDNA→tetraploidcell(4n)→division---structure:roundcell,becomelargest,18um,leftthebasallayerN:large,round,ondifferentstageofdivision(theprophaseofmeioticdivisionupto22days)---throughfirstmeiosisdividesintotwosecondaryspermatocyte(2n,23Xor23Y)c.secondaryspermatocyte:---nearerthelumen---structure:roundcell,12umN:rounddeep-stainedhardtosee-shortlived(dividequickly)---throughsecondarymeiosisdividesintotwospermatid(1n,23Xor23Y)d.spermatid---structure:smallestcell,8umlocatedatinnerestlayer---throughspermiogenesis:spermatidbecomeintospermatozoae.spermatozoa:---structureofspermatozoa:60umlengthhead:-pear-shaped-flattened-nucleus-acrosometail:flagallum(centriole)-neck-middlesegment:mitochondriasheath-principalsegment-endsegment---theprocessesofspermiogenesisi.condensationandelongationofNii.formationoftheacrosome-covertheanteriorandlateralportionofN-containhydrolyticenzymesforfertilizationiii.formationofflagellum:formotilityiv.formationofmitochondriasheathv.dischargeofuselessorganelleandcytoplasm②Sertolicell---structure:LM:/columnarorpyramidalcell/restonbasallamina/extendingintolumen/noclearboundary/elongatedN:triangular,ovoid,paler-stained,withprominentnucleolusEM:/SER(more),RER(some),Golgi/mito,lysosome/MT,MF,/glycogen,lipiddroplet/tightjunction:basalcompartmentandabluminalcompartment---function:a.

support,protect,nourish,regulateandreleasegerminalcellb.secretandrogen-bindingprotein;bindtoandrogen,maintainthelevelofandrogenconcentrationoflumenc.

phagocytosedegeneratedcellandspermiogenicresidualbodiesd.

constitutetheblood-testisbarriera.

blood-testisbarrier/components:endotheliumbasallaminaofendotheliumCTbasallaminaofseminiferoustubuletightjunctionofsertolicell/function:protecttheseminiferouscellsfromauto-immunereactionresistanttomostharmfulfactors(radiation,bodytemperature,infection)3)interstitialtissue:---LCT---Leydigcell:structure:LM:-ingroups-large,polygonal-shapedcell,withroundN-acidophiliccytoplasmEM:steroid-hormonesecretingcell’featurefunction:secretetestosterone-androgen4)tubulerectusandretetestis---tubulerectus:simplecuboidalorlowcolumnarepi.---retetestis:simplecuboidalepi.Chapter16

EyeandEar

1.Eye1)

Thewallofeyeball①Fibroustunic:DCT---cornea:---sclera:DCT---corneallimbus(corneosclerallimbus)Cornea:/anterior1/6offibroustunic,transparent,bulgesslightlyanteriorly/connectwithsclera/fivelayers:cornealepithelium:i.stratified,squamousnon-keratinisingepitheliumii.

5-6layersofregulararrangedcellsiii.basalcellshaveremarkableregeneratingabilityiv.

richinnerveterminalanteriorlimitinglamina:i.

aclearuniformmembrane,10-16umthickii.

containcollagenousfibrilsandmatrixiii.

cannotregeneratecornealstroma:cornealpropriai.

constitute90%ofcornealthicknessii.

composedoflayersofcollagenousfibrilsiii.

keratocyte:similartofibroblastiv.

matrix,noBVposteriorlimitinglamina:i.

aclearhomogenousmembrane,5-10umthickii.

consistsofcollagenousfibrilandmatrixcornealendothelium:i.

simplesquamousepi.ii.EM:mito,pinocytoticvescles,GolgiandRERiii.Activefunctionoftransporting,synthesizingandsecretingprotein*transparencyofthecornea:duetoabsenceofBVnon-pigmentedepi,regularorganizationofcollagenfibrilsmaintenanceofhydrationofgroundsubstance②Vasculartunic(uvea):LCTwithBVandmelanocytes---iris---ciliarybody---choroid③retina:---pigmentepithelium:outerestlayersimplelowcolumnarepi:-culomnarcell:thin,longprocessesatapicalsurface-roundorovoidN-EM:SER,Golgi,roughroundorovoidpigmentgranules-function:i.

protectvisualcellii.

involveinreplaceofmembranousdisciii.storevitaminAandinvolveinthesynthesisofrhodopsin---visualcell:photoreceptorcell/cellbody:/innerprocess:formsynapsewithbipolarcellandhorizontalcell/outerprocess:-outersegment:containmembranousdisc-innersegment:containmito,RER,GolgiandMT/rodcell:-110,000,000-120,000,000-deep-stainedN-outerprocess:cylindrical-outersegment:membranousdisc-invaginationofcellmembranebutseparatedwithcellmembrane(exfoliatedandingestedbypigmentcell)-rhodopsin(visualpurpke)=11-cisretinal(retinene)+opsin-innerprocess:spherule(endinaterminalexpansion)-feeldimlight/conecell:-6,500,000-7,000,000-largeN,paler-stained-outerprocess:conical-outersegment:membranousdisc,notseparated,noexfoliationofdisks-iodopsin(photopsin)=11-cisretinal+opsin(different)-innerprocess:pedicle-feelblightlight(red-558nm,green-531nm,blue-419nm)---bipolarcell:/largeN/containRER,mitoandGolgi/dendrite:synapsewithphotoreceptorandhorizontalneuron/axon:formsynapsewithdendriteofganglioncell/classification:-rodbipolarcell-midgetbipolarcell-flatbipolarcell---ganglioncell:/multipolarneuron:/dendrite:synapsewithbipolar,amacrinecellandinterplexiformcell/axon:makeupopticnerve/classification:midgetganglioncellanddiffuseganglioncell---interneurons:/locatedinlayerofbipolarcell/horizontalcell,amacrinecell,interplexiformcell---radialneurogliacell:Mullercell/neuroglialcell/thinandlongcell,withovoid,deep-stainedN/processes:endatouterlimitingmembraneandinnerlimitingmembrane/function:supporting,protecting,nourishingandinsulatingfunctionUnderLM:retinacanbedividedintotenlayersi.

layerofpigmentepithelium:pigmentepithelialcellii.

layerofrodsandconesiii.

outerlimitingmembrane:outerprocessesofMullercelliv.outernuclearlayer:Nofvisualcellsv.outerplexiformlayer:innerprocessofvisualcell,dendritesofbipolarcellandprocessesofhorizontalcellvi.

innernuclearlayer:cellbodyofbipolarcell,horizontalcell,amacrinecellandinterplexiformcellandMullercell

vii.innerplexiformlayer:axonofbipolarcell,dendritesofganglioncell,processesofamacrinecellandinterplexiformcellviii.

layerofganglioncells:cellbodyofganglioncellix.

layerofopticfibers:axonsofganglioncellx.innerlimitionmembrane:formedbyconnectioneachotherofinnerprocessesofMullercells*maculalutea:/definition:asmallareaofretinaatposteriorpolarofretina,containsayellowpigmentandisnon-vascularised,socalledyellowspot/3mminD/centralfovea:shallowdepression,1.5mminD/thinnestretina:0.1mm/containonlyconecell,norodcell/onevisualcellconnectswithonebipolarcell,andonebipolarcellformssynapsewithoneganglioncell/havemostclearvision*papillaofopticnerve:opticdisc/1.5mminD/3mmmedialtomaculalutea/placewheretheopticnerveleaveout/nophotoreceptors:socalledblindspot2.Ear

---theexternalear---themiddleear---theinnerear1)innerear:labyrinth---osseouslabyrinth:asystemofcanalsandcavitiesincompactbonethevestibulesemicircularcanalcochlea---membranouslabyrinth:usuallylinedbysimplesquamousepi.except:membranesemicircularcanal:crist