K內(nèi)容走向全球

UNITEDNATIONSCONFERENCEONTRADEANDDEVELOPMENT

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?2024,UnitedNations

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ACNOWLEDGEMENTS

Acknowledgements

Thestudywasprepared,underthegeneralguidanceofTaisukeIto,DongWuandMarisaHendersonoftheTradingSystems,ServicesandCreativeEconomyBranchattheUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD),byTaeHeeKim,incollaborationwithKatalinBokor.MihoShirotori,theActingDirectoroftheDivisiononInternationalTradeandCommoditiesatUNCTAD,providedthestrategicguidanceandoversightforthepublication.

UNCTADgratefullyacknowledgesthesignificantcontributionstothestudyofJenSnowball(RhodesUniversity,SouthAfrica).

ThestudyalsobenefitedfromextensivecommentsandresourcesprovidedbytheMinistryofCulture,Sports,andTourismaswellasexternalexpertsoftheRepublicofKoreaspecializingincontent-basedindustriesandcopyright.ExternalexpertsincludedYoungHoonSongandDongWookLeefromtheKoreaCreativeContentAgency,JinTaeLeeandYunSeokPakfromtheKoreaCopyrightCommission,andChoeKyongSoofromtheKoreaDevelopmentInstitute(KDI)SchoolofPublicPolicyandManagement.

SubstantiveandeditorialfeedbackwasprovidedbythefollowingUNCTADstaffmembers:GrahamMott,ZenathanAdminHasannudin,YutaroSakataandLauraMoresino-Borini.

DesignandlayoutworkwasdonebyLauraMoresino-Borini.

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ABBREVIATIONSANDACRONYMS

Abbreviationsandacronyms

CMOcopyrightmanagementorganization

FTAfreetradeagreement

IPRintellectualpropertyrightsISPInternetserviceprovider

KCCKoreaCopyrightCommission

KCOPAKoreaCopyrightProtectionAgency

MCSTMinistryofCulture,Sports,andTourism

KCTIKoreaCultureandTourismInstitute

KOCCAKoreaCreativeContentAgency

KOFICEKoreaFoundationforInternationalCulturalExchange

KOTECKoreaTechnologyFinanceCorporation

KOTRAKoreaTrade-InvestmentPromotionAgency

NIPANationalITIndustryPromotionAgency

OECDOrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment

RMIrightsmanagementinformation

RTAregionaltradeagreement

SNSsocialnetworkingservice

TPMtechnologicalprotectionmeasures

TRIPsTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights

UCCUniversalCopyrightConvention

WIPOWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization

WTOWorldTradeOrganization

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CONTENTS

Contents

Acknowledgements iii

Abbreviationsandacronyms iv

INTRODUCTION 1

I.THEPURPOSEOFCULTURALPOLICYAND

THERATIONALEFORGOVERNMENTSUPPORTFORTHEARTS 3

II.OVERVIEWOFTHECONTENT-BASEDINDUSTRY 9

A.Globalmarkettrends 10

B.Content-basedindustrytrendsintheRepublicofKorea 12

III.POLICYOFTHEGOVERNMENTOFTHEREPUBLICOFKOREAFOR

THECONTENT-BASEDINDUSTRIES 15

A.Publicpolicyforthegrowthofthecontent-basedindustry 16

B.Copyrightpolicytoincentivizecreatorsandprotectcopyrightedworks 18

C.Financialincentives 22

D.Institutionalframework 23

1.Legislativeframework 23

2.Governance 25

CONCLUSIONANDIMPLICATIONS 27

Endnotes 33

References 37

Annexes

1

.

Top25economieswithlargestrevenuesinthecontent-basedindustries 43

2

.

Trendsinthecontent-basedindustryoftheRepublicofKorea,2016–2020 44

Boxes

1.OverviewofthegrowthoftheKoreanwaveorHallyu 14

2.SuccessfactorsdrivingthepopularityoftheKoreanwaveorHallyu 17

3.BrandpoweroftheRepublicofKoreaassociatedwiththeKoreanwaveorHallyu 26

Figures

1.Globalmarketsizeofthecontent-basedindustries 10

2.Globalmarketsizeoftheanimation,film,andmusicindustries 11

3.Totalsales,exports,andemploymentinthesectorsoftheRepublicofKoreacontent-basedindustry 13

4.Intellectualpropertyrightsandcopyrightstradebalance 14

5.Timelineofpolicymeasures,domesticsalesandexportsofcontent-basedindustryin

theRepublicofKorea 16

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CONTENTS

Tables

1.Sizeoftheglobalcontent-basedmarket 12

2.Illustrativemeasuresoncopyright 19

3.MainrevisionsoftheCopyrightActintheRepublicofKorea 21

4.Lawsrelatedtothecontent-basedindustryintheRepublicofKorea 24

INTRODUCTION

Creativeindustriesareamongtheworld’smostrapidlyexpandingsectors,offeringaviableavenueforeconomicdevelopment,particularlyfordevelopingcountries.Creativeindustriescanbedefinedas“industrialsectorswhichcomprisetangibleproductsandintangibleintellectualorartisticserviceswithcreativecontent,economicvaluesandmarketobjectives”(UNCTAD,2022a).Content-basedindustries,asubsetofcreativeindustries,encompassvariouscontent-producingsectors.(EuropeanCommission,2018;UNCTAD,2022a;WIPO,2018).Thecontent-basedindustrycomprisestheculturalsector,creativeandartisticsectors,publishing,music,broadcasting,andfilm.Duetotheinherentexpansivenessofcontentandadvancementsindigitaltechnologies,thecontent-basedindustrynotonlyevolvesitselfbutalsospursgrowthinothersectorssuchasplatformsandonlineretail.This,inturn,significantlycontributestothebroaderdevelopmentofthecreativeeconomyinthedigitalage(MCST,2010a).

Therehasbeenaworldwideshiftfromseeingtheculturalsectorasassociatedwithpublicgoodsthatprovideprimarilynon-marketvalues,toseeingthecreativeindustriesasanindustrialsectorintheirownright(UNCTAD,2022;Lee,2020).Thisnewconceptualisationhasalsoledtoashiftinculturalpolicy:fromstrategiesthatfocusonsubsidisingasectorthatprovidespublicgoods(intrinsicartisticexcellence;socialcohesion;heritageandidentity)tostrategiesmuchmorerelatedtoindustrialpolicy.

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INTRODUCTION

Newemergingtechnologiessuchasartificialintelligence,cloudcomputingand3Dprintinghavefundamentallychangedsomepartsofthecreativeindustries,generatingnewbusinessmodelsinthevaluechainsofproducing,distributing,andconsumingcreativegoodsandservices(MCST,2010a;UNCTAD,2022a).Forexample,onlineplatforms,byusingartificialintelligencetechnologies,providepersonalizedmusicorfilmcontenttoeachconsumer.TheCOVID-19pandemicacceleratedtheshifttoe-commerceanddigitalplatformsandtherapidmovetodigitalcontentservices(Ryu,2021).Giventhepaceofdigitalizationandtheevolvingbusinesslandscape,newpolicychallengesinevitablyariseforthegrowthofcontent-basedindustry.Thesechallengesincludefosteringdigitalcompetencies;cultivatingaconduciveenvironmentforcreativeindustries,especiallyinviewoftheirhigh-risknature;andformulatingsuitableinstitutionalframeworks(UNCTAD,2022).

Sincethe2000s,theRepublicofKoreahaschampionedthedevelopmentofthecontent-basedindustryasacornerstoneforeconomicgrowth,followingthenationalagendatoboosthigh-valueactivitiesandhigh-qualityemploymentintheeraofthe4thIndustrialRevolution.Thispaperdelvesintothecontent-basedindustryoftheRepublicofKorea1withaviewtobetterunderstandingthefactorsinfluencingitssuccessand,inparticular,theroleoftheGovernmentoftheRepublicofKorea’spolicytosupportthecontent-basedindustryasanewengineofgrowthfortheeconomy.

ThereportthusprovidesaninsiderviewofthewaysinwhichtheRepublicofKoreahasusedaveryspecifickindofculturalpolicytodrivethephenomenalcreativeindustriessuccessoftheKoreanWave,alsoreferredtoastheHallyueffect.Thenextchapterbrieflyreviewsdebatesaboutthepurposeandrolesofculturalpolicyinaninternationalcontext,andhowthecreativeindustriesandthedigitisationofculturalcontenthavechangedtheseideas.

Definingtheculturalsectorandthecreativeindustries:Anevolvingdebate

Definingtheculturalsectorandthecreativeindustriesinrelationtothepurposeandscopeofculturalpolicyisanevolvingdebate.Throsby(2010)identifiedthreecharacteristicsoftheculturaleconomy:(i)itinvolvessomeaspectofhumancreativityinproduction;(ii)itproducesgoodsandservicesthathavesymbolicvaluesandmeanings;and(iii)itcreatesintellectualproperty.UNCTAD(2008and2022)buildsonthisbyaddinglinkstotheknowledgeeconomyandtotechnology,whichisofparticularimportanceforthemorecommercialcreativeindustries.

Originally,culturalpolicywaslimitedto“theartsandheritage”,whichwereoftenprovidedbynon-profitorganisations.Morecommercial,popularcultureformswereexcludedfromdiscussionofculturalpolicy,whichwasjustifiedprimarilythroughthepublicgoodnatureofartsandculture.However,globalisationanddigitisationshiftedthisdebatedramatically(Cunningham,2004).Originallyseenasapotentialthreattothearts,theconcentriccirclesmodellinkedartsandcultureandthecreativeindustriestogether,proposingthatthecoreculturalsectors(literature,music,performingandvisualarts),providedthecontentforwiderandrelatedsectorswithmorecommercialapplications,suchasaudio-visualproduction,videogames,architectureanddesign(Throsby,2008).Thelatter,whichmadeupthecreativeindustries,wereconnectedtothecoreculturalsectorinthattheydrewonthemforinspiration,andproducedoutputsthatcouldbeprotectedbycopyright,buttheydidnotnecessarilyhavehighlevelofsymbolicculturalcontent.

Thecreativeindustriesaredefinedindifferentwaysbydifferentcountriesandorganisations,whichhasledtosomedebatesabouthowtomeasureandmanagethecreativeeconomy.Althoughthereareanumberofframeworks,thereisnointernationalconsensusonexactlywhattoinclude.IntheRepublicofKorea,theterm“creativeindustries”hasnotgainedsupport,andthesectorisrefereedtoinsteadasthe“contentindustry”orthe“content-basedindustry.”Lee(2020)pointsoutthat,intheRepublicofKorea,unlikeinotherwesterncountries,therehasnotbeenmuchdebateaboutwhatthecontentindustryincludesorexcludes.Ratherthandefiningthesectorasbasedonsomephilosophicalconceptionofhumancreativity,thecontentindustryisapracticalpolicytermreferringtothetradableoutputsproducedbythesector.Regardlessofhowtheyaredefined,however,thecreativeorcontentindustrieshavenecessitatedashiftinthinkingaboutculturalpolicy(UNCTAD,2022).

CHAPTERI:

THEPURPOSEOFCULTURALPOLICYANDTHERATIONALEFORGOVERNMENT

SUPPORTFORTHEARTS

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I.THEPURPOSEOFCULTURALPOLICYANDTHERATIONALEFORGOVERNMENTSUPPORTFORTHEARTS

UNCTAD(2022a)notesthat,since2015,therehasbeenarapidincreaseinthenumberofcountriesthathaveputinplacestrategiestosupportandregulatethecreativeindustries.Thisisespeciallybeingdrivenbydevelopingeconomies,whichhaveidentifiedtheirculturalcapitalasavaluableresource,notonlyforitsintrinsicandsocialvalues,butalsoforitseconomicandpoliticalpotential.Asthisreportshows,developingmiddleincomecountriesarenotonlyincreasinglylargeplayersintheproductionofdigitalonlinecontent,theyarealsosomeofthefastestgrowingmarkets.Whiletheworld’slargeeconomiesstilldominate,thetop25countriesintermsofcontent-basedindustryspendingnowalsoincludetheRepublicofKorea,India,Brazil,SouthAfricaandMexico.Someauthors(?cibiorska-KowalczykandCichoń,2021;UNCTAD,2023)alsosuggestthattheculturalindustriesofferemergingeconomiesanimportant,andenvironmentallysustainable,pathtodevelopment,asanalternativetoenvironmentallydamagingextractionindustries.Inadditiontocontributingtoeconomicgrowthandwelfareimprovements,thecreativeindustriescanhelptobuildapositiveimageofacountryininternationalmarkets,withcanalsoincreasetourismandsoftpower.

Oneofthemostpowerfultraditionalargumentsforthepublicsupportofarts,cultureandheritageisthatthesectorcontributesgoodthingstosocietybeyondwhatprivateconsumersgain(Borowiecki,Gray,andHeilbrunforthcoming).Becauseatleastsomeofthesocialbenefitsthattheculturalsectorprovidesarepublic,producersareunabletocaptureenoughofthevalueofwhattheyproducetohaveanincentivetoprovidethesociallyoptimumquantityofartsandculture.Thewelfareeconomicssolutiontosuchmarketfailureisforgovernmenttostepinandfillthegapwitheitherdemandorsupplysidepolicies(Throsby,2010;Towse,2010).

Morerecently,researchhasshownthatthecreativeindustriesareafast-growingeconomicsectorintheirownrightand,assuch,deservetheattentionandpublicsupportaccordedtootherimportanteconomicsectors.Inadditiontotheirculturalvalues,creativeindustriescanalsoplananimportantpartineconomicobjectives,suchasjobcreation,economicgrowth,tourismdevelopment,andinnovationsleadingtocommercialisationandprofit.Inthepast,theeconomicimpactsoftheartswerenotregardedaslargeorimportant,andthesectorwasgenerallynotmeasuredinthisway.However,withtheriseoftheculturalindustriesdiscourse,theeconomicvaluesassociatedwiththeartsarebeingregardedasincreasinglyimportant.

PottsandCunningham(2008)describefourmodelsofthecreativeindustries,eachofwhichisassociatedwithparticularvalues,andwhichdemandadifferentkindofpolicy.Forexample,ifartsandcultureisregardedinthetraditionalwayofbeingapublicgoodthatprovidessocialbenefits(referredtoasthewelfaremodel),thentheappropriateculturalpolicyisgovernmentsubsidy.However,thecompetitivemodelofthecreativeindustriesfocusesonfirmsasdriversofeconomicgrowthandjobcreation,sotheresponseisindustrialpolicyregulationtopromotecompetitionandprovideaccesstofinancing.Thegrowthmodelseesthecreativeindustriesasadistinctsectorcontributingtoeconomicgrowth,jobsandtrade,sopolicyshouldbefocusedonpublicandprivateinvestmentandsuccessismeasuredthroughfinancialreturns.Finally,theinnovationmodelseesthecreativeindustriesaspartofthenationalsystemofinnovation,whichgeneratesbothsocialandcommercialreturns.Althoughacknowledgedasrisky(inthesamewaythatinvestmentinresearchanddevelopmentis),theappropriatepublicpolicyresponseispublicinvestmenttogeneratebothdirectfinancialreturns,butalsotobenefitfrominnovationspill-oversintootherindustries.However,althoughthesedifferentconceptionsofthecreativeindustriesofferculturalpolicyoptions,theyaremoregenerallyapplicabletothemarket-friendlyapproachfollowedbytheglobalnorth.

Lee(2020)contentsthatresearchonculturalpolicyhastendedtofocusonwesternconceptionsoftheroleofmarket,withmuchlessattentiongiventheothercontexts,likeAsiaandAfrica.Westernculturalpolicytendstofocusonmoregeneric,“horizontal”(ascomparedtotop-down)policies,whicharenotspecifictoanyparticularindustry(withthenotableexceptionoffilm).Suchpoliciesincludetheprovisionofinfrastructure,generalsupportforinnovation,balancedregionaldevelopment,andnon-specificeducationandhumancapitaldevelopmentthatareaimedatimprovinggeneralcompetitiveness.Itislefttothemarkettodeterminethe“winners”,andthemarketisassumedtoleadtothemostefficientoutcome.Theroleofgovernmentisthuslimitedtocorrectingmarketfailures(inthecaseofpublicgoods)andprovidingabusiness-friendlyenvironmentthrough,forexample,providingaccesstofinanceandprotectingintellectualpropertyrights(Lee,2020).

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TheculturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKorea,however,focusesonhighlyspecificinterventionsinparticularindustries,whichareselectedforpromotionwithaviewtoincreasingtheirgrowthandexportearnings.Thereisnoassumptionbypolicymakersthatthemarketwillleadtotheefficientordesiredoutcomeswithoutstrongdirectionfromgovernment.However,theapproachoftheRepublicofKoreacanstillbeidentifiedasliberal,inthatitfocusedonreducingconstrictinglegislationandpromotingexportmarkets.However,withinthatapproach,thereisalsoastrongandcapabledevelopmentalstatewitha“handson”approachtothecreativeeconomy(RyooandJin,2020).

Horizontalculturalpolicyhasbroaderaimsthanindustry-specificpolicy,andthustendstobeevaluatedacrossawiderrangeofcategoriesofvalue.Thesemayincludetheeconomicoutcomes(withindicatorssuchasGDPcontribution,employmentlevelsandindustryexportearnings),butalsosocialandintrinsicvalues.Lee(2020)pointsoutthatthismakeshorizontalculturalpolicymoredifficulttoevaluate:sincecreativeenterprisesarerecognizedashigh-riskindustrieswithvolatilemarketdemand,slowgrowthofeconomicindicatorsisthusnotasignofpolicyorindustryfailure,sincepublicspendingcanbejustifiedintermsofothersocial,non-marketvalues.TheculturalpolicyoftheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland,forexample,focusesoneducationandskillsprogrammes,thedevelopmentofregionalcreativeclusters,accesstofinance,andmorerecently,theroleoftechnologyin“createch”,asthecornerstonesofitsculturalpolicy(Lee,2020;NESTA,2023).IntheRepublicofKorea’sculturalpolicy,thefocusisnotsomuchonbalancedregionaldevelopmentbutratheronprovidingefficientandsuccessfulbusinessincubatorsinlargecities.

Thedigitalcreativeeconomyandcopyright

Hartley(2021)tellsacompellingstoryofhowthedigitisationofthecreativeindustriesintheUnitedStatesofAmericachangedmarketstructureandculturalpolicy.Whilecopyrightintheanaloguecreativesectorwasameansofsurvival,theriseofmultinationalonlineplatformsinthedigitalspaceofferedthemostlucrativemonopolyopportunities.Copyrightprotectstheoriginalwork,givingthecreatorarighttoincomeassociatedwithhisorheroutput–thesaleoftheoriginalinthecaseofanalogueworks.However,inthecreativeindustriestherearealsopotentiallylargeropportunitiesforgeneratingincomefromcreativity.Forexample,incomecanbegeneratedthroughtheproductionand(online)saleofcopiesoftheoriginal,eachwithalowpriceandprofitmargin,butwhichismorethanmadeupforbythevolumeofsales,andthelow(orzero)marginalcostofproducingonemoreunitorcopy.Reachinginternationalmarketsandgainingaudienceattentionisthebusinessoftheplatforms(Sanchez‐CartasandLeón,2021).

Thedigitisationofcreativegoodsmayprovideanimportantopportunityfordevelopingcountriesintermsofprovidingculturalcontenttoonlinedistributorsandreachingnewmarkets,butasNwauche(2017)pointsout,onlyifintellectualproperty(IP)rightscanbeenforced.Culturalcontentprovidedonlinecaneasilybecopied,downloadedandshared.Inmanydevelopingcountries,IPandcopyrightframeworksareweak,andlevelsofcounterfeitingandpiracyarehigh.

Thedigitisation(alsocalleddematerialisation)ofmuchculturaltraderequiresnotonlyachangeinculturalpolicy,butalsointradepolicy.Theexistenceandinternationalenforcementofcopyrights,performers’rightsandroyaltyfeesisvitaliflocalculturalcontentistobemonetisedeffectivelyandincomefromexportsearned(Fazio,n.c.).However,thenegotiationofIPclausesintradeagreementsistime-consumingandcostly.CampiandDuenas(2018)findthattradeagreementswithIPclausesdelayimplementationbutareneverthelesseffectiveinincreasingtradeflowsfromdevelopingtodevelopedcountries.

TheRepublicofKoreahasbeenamemberoftheWorldTradeOrganisation(WTO)since1995,andassuch,mustcomplywithinternationalregulations,suchastheAgreementonTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights(TRIPS).Thisagreementtreatsinformationasagoodthatcanbetraded,butsomeauthorsarguethatthewayithasbeenimplementedadvantagesdevelopedcountries(Gilardietal.,2023).Strongcopyrightlegislationindevelopedmarkets,liketheUnitedStatesofAmerica,couldallowthesecountriestoaccessnewmarketsindevelopingcountrieswithoutnecessarilyhavingtoopentheirownmarkets(Gilardietal.,2023).

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InthecaseoftheculturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKorea,theimportanceofputtinginplacestrongandeffectivecopyrightpolicytobothpromoteandprotectculturalcontentwasrealisedearlyon.Thisreportdescribesarangeofmeasuresthatencompassnotonlylegislation,butalsoinstitutionswhichreducethecostsofregisteringandenforcingcopyright.Thiswasvitalforthesuccessoftheexport-orientatedculturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKorea.

CulturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKoreaincontext

Asinmanydevelopingcountries,theRepublicofKoreastartedwithaculturalpolicyfocusedonheritageprotectionandthepromotionofthepublicgoodsassociatedwiththearts,suchasnation-building(Otmazgin,2011).Thisfollowsasimilarpatterntopost-apartheidculturalpolicyinSouthAfrica,whichwasoriginallydevelopedwithafocusonredressingtheimbalancesofthepastandbroadeningaccesstopublicculturalresources,especiallyforpoorer,blackSouthAfricanslivinginperi-urbanareas.Intalkingaboutpost-colonial(orpost-conflict)societies,Mulcahy(2017)arguesthatanimportantpartofregainingpoliticalsovereigntyisthroughnationbuildingandlinkingidentitytoculturalheritage.ThiswasalsothestanceofearlyculturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKorea,whichaimedtosupportculturebecauseofitsimportancefornation-buildingandtoprotectlocalheritageandculturaltraditionsfromforeigninfluence(Otmazgin,2011).

Fromthe1980’s,thelivingconditionsofpeopleintheRepublicofKoreaimproveddramatically,andgovernmentcensorshipwasrelaxed,whichfuelledlocaldemandforculturalcontent,andopenedthewayforanewculturaldevelopmentplan“CultureforAll”in1990,whichbegantheshifttowardswhatRyooandJin(2020)describeasamoreliberalmarket-basedsystem.Thiswasalsothestartofinternationalinterestinthedevelopmentpotentialoftheculturalandcreativeindustries,andglobalisation.Lackingthenaturalresourceendowmentsofothercountries,andaspartoftheirrecoverypolicyafterthe1997financialcrisis,theGovernmentoftheRepublicofKoreafocusedtheireconomicpolicyon“developinghumancreativity,knowledge,technicalskillsandentrepreneurship”(?cibiorska-KowalczykandCichoń,2021).

Asimilarapproachhasbeentakeninotherdevelopingcountries.InSouthAfrica,forexample,thenewerRevisedWhitePaperonArts,CultureandHeritage(2017),hasshiftedculturalpolicytoincludeboththenon-marketculturalsectorandthecreativeindustriesandtheirpotentialforgrowth.However,thepolicystanceisstill“hori-zontal”,inthesensethatgovernmentinterventionisjustifiedascorrectinginstancesofmarketfailure,andsup-portinggeneralcompetitivenessforthecreativeindustries.In2023,theMasterplanfortheCreativeIndustrywasreleasedaspartofthenational“ReimaginedIndustrialStrategy”ofthecountry.Thisdocumentdoesputinplacemoresector-specificpolicies,coveringmusic,fineartandcrafts,theaudio-visualsectorandbooksandpublish-ing.However,government’sroleisstilloneofcoordinationandfacilitation,ratherthanprovidingstrongdirection.

Malaysianculturalpolicyrecognisedthedualrolesoftheculturalsector–theeconomicpotentialofthecreativeindustries(contributingtoeconomicgrowth,jobcreation,innovationandexports)aswellasthebenefitsofthedevelopmentalroleoftheculturalsector(nation-buildingandsocialcohesion).TheDasarInsutri