car -高級(jí)駕駛輔助系統(tǒng)、自動(dòng)化和連接性的現(xiàn)狀 State of ADAS,Automation,and Connectivity

CENTERFORAUTOMOTIVERESEARCH

StateofADAS,Automation,andConnectivity

NaseebSouweidane

BrettSmith

March|2023

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AbouttheAuthorsAcknowledgmentsIntroduction

AdvancedDriverAssistSystems(ADAS)Overview

CrashReductionandSafetyRegulation

ADASNamingConventionsDriverEducation

DriverMonitoring

BusinessCaseandConsumerAcceptanceGoingForward

AutomatedVehicles(AV)

Overview

TimelineEvolution

FromADAStoAV:SkippingaStep

KeyIssuesHoldingBackDeployment

Consumer:AdoptionandRiskToleranceBusinessCase

Modality

OperationalDesignDomainsCondition

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ScalingTowardAutomation:TestingvsPilotsvs

Launches

Infrastructure

PolicyandRegulation

Liability

Technology:HardwareandSoftwareCyber/Data

Maintenance

GoingForward

Connectivity

Overview

DSRCvs.CV2X

StatusofRegulation

InternationalScopeofRegulationDataPrivacy

AlternativesintheMarket:CloudComputingBusinessCaseforConnectivityandtheCostElementsfromOEMs

BusinessCaseforConnectivityinAutomationGoingForward

Conclusion

WorksCited

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ABOUTTHEAUTHORS

TheCenterforAutomotiveResearchisanindependentnon-profitthatproducesindustry-drivenresearchandfostersdialogueoncriticalissuesfacingtheauto-

motiveindustryanditsimpactontheU.S.economyandsociety.CARresearcherscloselytrackcurrentandfutureglobalautomotiveindustryandtechnologytrendsandassesstheirimpacts.CARresearchersalsostudyinternationalcollaborationsandstayabreastofchangesininternationaltradeandregulatoryenvironments,thedevelopmentoftechnologystandards,andthedeploymentofnewvehicle

technologies.

Acknowledgements

TheauthorswouldliketothankShaunWhitehouse,previousDirectorofMarket-ingandEventsatCAR,CarolynMozheev,SeniorMarketing&AffiliatesProgram

ManageratCAR,BrianEstenberg,CorporateRelations,Research&StrategicPart-nershipsatCAR,EdgarFalerSeniorIndustryAnalystatCAR,andJuliaBush,Indus-tryAnalystatCAR,fortheirassistanceinresearching,writing,andpreparingthisdocument.

Forcitationsandreferencetothispublication,pleaseusethefollowing:

Souweidane,N.,Smith,B.(2022).StateofADAS,Automation,andConnectivity.CenterforAutomotiveResearch,AnnArbor,MI.

CENTERFORAUTOMOTIVERESEARCH

880TechnologyDrive,SuiteC|AnnArbor,MI48108|

CAR’smissionistoproduceindependentresearch,convenestakeholders,and

analyzecriticalissuesfacingthemobilityindustryanditsimpactonthe

economyandsociety.

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Introduction

Vehiclesarecurrentlyinanewstageofevolutionthatincludesadvanceddriverassist,connectivity,andautomation.Duetotheevolvingnatureofthetechnolo-gyandshiftingconsumerpreferences,thetimingandpathwayforimplementa-tionofthesetechnologiesisstilluncertain.Whilethesenewtechnologiesarestillevolving,anunderstandingofthecurrentautomotivelandscapemayhelppro-videaviewtofuturedevelopments.

TheCenterforAutomotiveResearchiscommittedtoinformingthepublicaboutthecurrentstateofvehicletechnologies.In2017,2019,and2020,CARpublishedroadmapsdescribingthecurrentandlikelyfuturestateofvehicletechnologies.ToensuretheinformationforecastedbyCARremainedcurrentandreflectedthelatestinvehicletechnologies,trends,andexpectations,CARconductedongo-

ingresearchandmoderatedindustryroundtables.Industryroundtableexpertsincludedautomanufacturers,partssuppliers,technologyproviders,dataprovid-ers,autonomousplatformsproviders,andtechnologyinvestors.Followingthe

roundtables,CARdevelopedanupdatedroadmapandreportreflectingindustrytrendsandexpectations.Thispapersummarizescriticalissuesinvolvingthede-velopmentanddeploymentoftechnologyinadvanceddriverassistancesystems(ADAS),autonomousvehicles(AV),andvehicleconnectivity.

AdvancedDriverAssistSystems(ADAS)

Overview

Advanceddriverassistancesystems(ADAS)havethepotentialtoreducecrash-

esandminimizetrafficinefficienciesbyeliminatinghumanerrorandproviding

real-timedataabouttrafficconditions.ThetechnologiesincludedinADASincludeautomaticemergencybraking,adaptivecruisecontrol,lane-keepingassist,self-

park,andvaryingautomaticemergencybrakingsystems.

ThereislittledisputeaboutthepotentialbenefitsofADAS.Eliminatinghuman

errorandsimplifyingdrivingmakeADASanattractivevisionforthefuturestateofautomotivetechnology.However,ADASarestillintheirdevelopmentalstage,andahandfulofhighlypublicized-andsometimesfatal-crasheshaveraisedcon-

cernsaboutthesafetyofthetechnology.

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Thereisagenerallackofdataandinformationtodrawrobustconclusionsaboutthenatureandcauseofthesecrashes,butnevertheless,thenegativeheadlineshavetemperedenthusiasmforthistechnology.

ADAStechnologies,popularforthelasttwodecades,haveadvancedinfourdis-tinctwaves:aidfeatures,warnfeatures,driverassistfeatures,andautomateddriv-ingfeatures.

1.Aidfeaturesaretechnologiesthatenhancedrivervisionthroughcamerasandlights.Popularizedintheearly2000’s,aidfeatureshavesincebecomecom-

monplace.

2.Warnfeaturesincludealertsystemsthatutilizesensorsandsoundstowarn

driversofhazards.Thesefeaturesareregainingfocusastheyhelpshapedrivermonitoring.

3.Driverassistfeaturesaretechnologiesthathelpsituationallycontrolthevehi-cle.Thesetechnologieshavebeenaroundfordecadesbutadvancedsignifi-cantlyinthelate1990s.Sincethen,newfeatureshaveconsistentlybeenintro-ducedtoprovideasophisticatedlevelofdriverassistance.Whichmayserveasthebridgetoautomateddrivingfeatures.

4.Automateddrivingfeaturesserveasamoreadvanceddriverassist,whichtakesresponsibilityandhelpsdrivethevehicleinspecificcircumstances.

Figure1:DriverAssistTechnologyEvolution

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CrashReductionandSafety

ADASandautomatedtechnologiesaretoutedassolutionsforcrashesandroad-waysafetybecausetheiradvancedtechnologycaneliminatehumanerror.The

NationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration(NHTSA)hasreportedthat“94%

ofseriouscrashesareduetohumanerror,”supportingtheinherentpromiseof

automatedandassisteddriving(NHTSA,2016).Statisticslikethisarecentraltothevisionpromotingfull-scaledeploymentofautomationanddriverlessvehicles.

However,thestatisticsprovidedbyNHTSAthatarecoretoADASadoptionare,insomeways,anoversimplifiednarrative(Muelleretal.,2020).IssuesthatmayarisefromADASincludetechnologyfailures,hacking,overrelianceontechnologyto

performbeyondintendeduse(humanerror),unreliableplatooningtechnology

thatleadstomoreseverecrashes,aninabilitytodetectvulnerableroadusers,anddecreasinglevelofinvestmentsinADAStechnologies.

Despitethesepotentialtechnologicalshortcomings,recentstudiespredictthat

ADAStechnologycouldreduceupto34percentofcrashes.Somestudiessug-

gestthispercentagecouldbeevenhigherifthetechnologycouldeliminatetrafficviolations(Mueller,2020).Reducingautocrashesbyjust10%wouldreducetrafficfatalitiesbythousands.

AtrendtoconsiderfurtheristhepotentialforADAStoincreasetraveldemand,

evenifproportionallyloweringcrashrates,whileraisingthenumberofaggregatecrashesduetotheincreaseddemandfromfleets.

Regulation

WhiletherehasbeennocongressionalactiongoverningADAStechnologyin

automobiles,NHTSA,whoseregulatoryframeworkremainsprimarilyweightedtowarddriver-focusedsafetystandards,hasstartedamendingitsstandardsandissuinggeneralorderstoregulateADAS.AstandinggeneralorderwasissuedbyNHTSAthatrequiredcompaniestoreportacrashifLevel2ADAStechnologywasin“useatanytimewithin30secondsofacrashandthecrashinvolvedavulner-ableroaduserorresultedinafatality,avehicletow-away,anairbagdeployment,oranyindividualbeingtransportedtoahospitalformedicaltreatment”(NHTSA,2021).Thestandingorderaimstoevaluatevehicletechnologiesandservesasa

measureofADASassessmentabsentincurrentFMVSSandNCAP.

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ADASNamingConventions

TherearecurrentlynofederallymandatedstandardstoensureconsistentuseofterminologyforreferencingADASfeatureslikeadaptivecruisecontrol,highway

pilot,andautomatedparking.ADAStechnologyhaslargelybeenpromotedand

describedinvaryingwaysbythecompaniesthatdevelopandadoptthetechnolo-gyintheirvehicles(Williams,2022).

Withoutuniversallyacceptednomenclature,companiesmaypromotetheirADASfeaturesandtechnologiesusingterminologythatmaynotaccuratelydescribethetechnologysuiteintheirvehiclesandmaynotbecommonlyunderstoodbycon-sumers.Tesla,forexample,referstoitsADASas“FullSelf-Driving,”yetitonlylandsonthesecondleveloftheSAEsfiveautomationlevels.Thislackofconsensushasledtoalevelofconsumermisunderstandingandfalseexpectationsofthetech-

nology’struecapability.

AAAledaworkinggrouptostandardizeADASfeaturesandtechnologiesto“clearconfusion”surroundingADAStechnology(AAA,2022).Theworkinggroupsoughttoprovideindustry-widedefinitionsofADAStechnologysuitestoimproveunder-standingandtransferabilityofterminology.Whiletherewasnotuniformagree-mentontheimportanceofadoptingastandardizednomenclature,theprevailingviewisthatstandardizationwillbeacriticalfactorinpromotingandunderstand-ingADAStechnologies.Standardizationwillalsobeanimportantfactorindrivereducationandtechnologyknowledgetransferability.

DriverEducation

EducatingdriversontheproperuseofADAStechnologiesisanessentialstepinfullyrealizingthebenefitsofADAS.Misuseandhumanerrormaycausecrash-

esthatwereotherwisepreventablethroughADAStechnology.Withoutaproperunderstandingofwhenandwheretechnologycanbedeployed,humanerrorcanleadtoADASfailures.Atrainingprogramtoadvancetheunderstandingofthe

ADAStechnologyusedwithinavehiclecanreducemisunderstandingandmisuseofADAS.

Somecompaniesimplementtrainingstandardsfordriversbeforetheyareprovid-edaccesstocertainADASfeatures(Mayhew&Robertson,2021).Thesemandatoryinstructionalstandardsensurethatdriversbetterunderstandthecapabilitiesandlimitationsofthetechnologyintheirvehicle.Forexample,adrivertrainedonTes-la’sADASsuitewouldlearnthat“FullSelf-Driving”requiresdriverengagement

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andisnotfullyautomated.However,fewcompaniesmandatethistypeofeduca-tion(Stafford,2022).

Despitethepotentialbenefitoftrainingprograms,consumersappearunwillingtospendtimelearninghowtouseADAS.Additionally,thelowdegreeoftrans-ferabilitybetweenmanufacturersoftechnologysuitesmeansaninvestmentinlearningonemanufacturer’stechnologymaynotbeparticularlyhelpfulforadif-ferentmanufacturer.

DriverMonitoring

DrivermonitoringisanothermechanismthatcanmitigatetherisksassociatedwithmisusingADASbyensuringdriversaremorefullyengagedwhiledriving.

Therearevaryingdegreesofdrivermonitoringrangingfromperiodicalertsto

requiredengagement(Barry,2022).Theproblemwithastrictdrivermonitoring

mandateisthatitmayremovetheincentivetofullyembracethetechnology.If

driversfeelmonitoringrequirementsoverlyrestricttheirautonomy,theymayfindlittlebenefitandvalueintheADAS.Assuringfocusthroughdrivermonitoringisabalancingactthatcompaniesandgoverningbodiesarecurrentlyattempting

tomanage.BotharetryingtoensureappropriatecustomeruseofADASwhile

notannoyingthedriver.Higher-enddrivermonitoringmayresultinbacklash

fromconsumersoveraperceivedinvasiveviewandincreasedpotentialforcyberthreats.

Additionally,falsepositivealertsgeneratedbythedrivermonitoringsystemmaycreateatechnologicalchallengethatdiscouragescompaniesfromenteringthismarket(Mehmedetal.,2020).Arecurringfalsepositiveratecouldfuelconsumermistrustandmisunderstandingofthevehiclewhichcannegativelyaffectcon-sumeradoptionandwillingnesstobuy.

Roundtablediscussionsonmonitoringsystemsalsohighlightedthecomplexityofmonitoringconsumerdistractioninlightofadvancementswithin-vehiclefea-turespresentedthroughphoneconnectivity.

TheEuropeanNewCarAssessmentProgramme(EuroNCAP)iscurrentlythelead-erinevaluatingdrivermonitoringstandardsthroughaseriesoforders(McManus,2022).EuroNCAPstandardshavebeeninstrumentalinestablishingdrivermoni-toringstandards.Intime,morejurisdictionswillimplementsimilarstandards.

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BusinessCaseandConsumerAcceptance

ThebusinesscaseforADASiscurrentlyunclearduetolowconsumptionlevels.

Pricingmodelsaredifficulttoestablishasmanyconsumersremainskepticalandunwillingtopayforthetechnology(Stigloeetal.,2022).AbetterunderstandingofhowmanyconsumersshutofftheADASfeaturesintheirvehiclesisneededtoappropriatelymodelthebusinesscaseforpriceysubscriptionmodels.

Asefficiencyofthesetechnologiesimprovesoverall,adoptionratesareexpectedtoincrease(Heinekeetal.,2022).Thereisabeliefwithintheindustrythatasthesetechnologiesgainaccesstomoreinformationanddata,theircapabilitieswillvast-lyimprove.Inturn,thebusinesscasesforsituationslikelongdrives,andconsum-erslookingforreliefinarduouscommuteswillimprove.However,standardization,lowerprices,andtechnologicalimprovementswilllikelybenecessaryforADAStoovercomeconsumeruncertainty.

GoingForward

ADAStechnologies’penetrationofseveralmarketsprovesthereisasolidnear-termbusinesscase.However,consumerswillrequirenear-term,pronouncedim-provementsinADASforcontinuedmarketpenetration.

Whenimplementedcorrectly,ADAScanprovideanattractiveincentivetocon-

sumers.However,adoptionofADASwillnotsolelycomefromtheexcitementsur-roundingthetechnology.ConsumerswillneedtobelieveinthepracticalbenefitsofADAS.

Safetyisapivotalsellingpoint,butADASmustalsoproveitcanmakethedrivingexperiencemoremanageableandlessburdensome.Thatproofcanonlyoccur

whenconsumersproperlyunderstandthebenefits,whichmeansclearlyunder-

stoodandconsistentnamingconventionsforADAStechnologies.Unfortunately,standardizationinnamingconventionsislikelyunrealisticinthenearterm,but

namesmorereflectiveoftherespectivetechnology’sabilitymayenhancethecon-sumer’sabilitytounderstand.

Drivereducationcanbridgethegap.Ifcompaniesarewillingtohelpconsumerscorrectlylearntheirvehicle’scapabilities,ADASusecouldbecomemorecommon-place,andlessofafeatureconsumersforgettouse(orintentionallyturnoff).

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Drivermonitoringwillbeanessentialpieceofregulationtolimitthemisuseof

ADAS.Still,ifdrivermonitoringregulationrequiresafocussimilartothatofdrivingatraditionalvehicle,there’slittleincentivetouseADASfeatures.

HigherADASadoptionwilllikelybelimitedtoconditionsandspeedsthatpose

lessofathreatwhenthedriverisdisengaged.EvenifADASprojectstobelimitedinitson-roadapplications,companieswillstillintroducethesetechnologies.IfthecostsofADASremainhigh,consumersstillhaveachoiceintheirvehicletechnolo-gies,andtheapplicationsremainlimited,themarketwillbenarrow.Alternatively,ifcostsdropandapplicationsincrease,standardizationispossiblebytheendof

thedecade.

AutomatedVehicles(AV)

Overview

Vehicleautomation,definedasSAELevel4andLevel5technology,isthenextphaseofautomotivedrivingtechnologies(SAE,2021).WhileADASrepresents

technologiesthatpartiallyremovedriverresponsibility,AVsrepresentthecom-pleteshiftincontrolfromdrivertovehicle.TherationaleforfocusingonLevels4and5asdistinctlyautonomousisthatAVsremovethedriver.

Inthemid-2010’snumerousforecastspredictedthatLevel5wouldarrivesome-timethisdecade.Butastheyearshavepassed,few,ifanycompaniesorstudiesareprojectingfullautonomyandunrestrictedoperationaldesigndomains(ODD).

SimilartoADAS,AVshavebeentoutedasasolutionforsafety.Numerouscom-

paniesandstudieshavealsolistedAVsasasolutionforloweremissions,reducedtravelcosts,increasedproductivity,anddecreasedcongestion.Whilevarying

degreesofautomationareavailable,highautomationforwidespreadcommercialuseiscurrentlyunavailable.

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Figure2:SAELevelsSource:SAE.(2021,May3)

TimelineEvolution

Differingprojectionsfromconsultants,industrystakeholders,andacademiawerereflectedinCAR’slasttwoiterationsoftheTechnologyRoadmap,butsincethen,alltimelinesandprojectionshaveshifted.

Around2017,whenfundingforAVwasatanall-timehigh,manyconsultants,re-searchers,andindustrystakeholdersprojectedAVdeploymentandmarketpen-etrationby2020(Hawkins,2021).Inhindsight,theseprojectionswerebullish,andmanymissedthemark.Reportswithprojectionsarenowrare,andcurrently,mostconsultantreportsrefertotechnologicalbarriersandbreakthroughs,withfew

datesanddeadlines.OEMs,technologycompanies,suppliers,andotherstake-

holdersareprojectingmilestonesinthenearterm,manyofwhichareincremen-talandachievable.

Whileacademicresearchwasmoreconservativethanconsultantsandindustrystakeholders,theyalsomissedsomeoftheirprojectionsandforecasts.Conse-

quently,projectionshavebecomelessfrequentandfocusedprimarilyonbarrierstodeployment.

Alloftheseprojectionsdifferintheirlevelsofautomation,baseyear,rateofmar-ketpenetration,andODDcapability.Duetothesediscrepancies,theaggregationofforecastsisnowlessstraightforwardthanithadbeeninthepast.Whiletime-linesmaybedifficulttoproject,asummaryoftheissuescanprovidearoadmapfordeployment,andthebarriersstandingintheway.

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Industrystakeholdersattheroundtableacknowledgedthesemissedprojectionsandgaveinsightintothemostrealisticcurrentusecases.Withtheseinsightsandtheaggregationofcurrentstudies,itiseasiertounderstandtheAVdeploymentroadmapandobstacles.

Figure3:AggregateAVProjections

FromADAStoAV:SkippingaStep

WhenAVoptimismwasatitspeak,manycompaniespledgedtogofromLevel2toLevel4,skippingLevel3(Stathousis,2020).However,skippingLevel3hasprov-entobedifficult,inpartbecauseintherealworld,scalingisthebesttraining.

Ahandfulofcompanieshavestucktothatscalingmodel.Overthelasttwoyears,Mercedes-BenzandHondahaveintroducedLevel3technologiesintheirhomecountries(Sigal,2022).Thesecompaniesareconsideredindustryleaders,andthefirsttoofferahigherlevelofADASandAVtechnologytotheirconsumersforpri-vateuse.

TheseearlyinnovatorsofLevel3technologycouldtriggerwidespreadofferingsofLevel3(asnotedbyindustryparticipantsattheroundtable),ortheycouldremainoutliersifcompaniesareunwillingtoassumeliability.

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Othersintheindustrypointtoaten-yeartransitiontoLevel3,andtheissuesthatmayarisealongtheway.Level3hasalsobeenconsideredmuchmorecostlyto

develop,evenatalowerrate,makingconsumeradoptionmuchlesslikely.The

expertsonthepanelpushedagainsttheideathatLevel3willbehardtoachieve,butnotedthatbarrierslikethecostsofadditionalcomputingandsensortechnol-ogymustbeovercome.ForthesereasonstheprevailingsentimentisthatLevel2stillhasthestrongestbusinesscase.

KeyIssuesHoldingBackDeployment

Figure4:DeploymentBarriers

Consumer:AdoptionandRiskTolerance

ConsumerskepticismtowardAVsishigh.Theindustrymustaddresssafetyis-

suesbeforeconsumersconsiderthemaviablesolution(Stigloeetal.,2022).Whilecrashratesmaynotbehigherthanatraditionalvehicle,consumermistrustofAVs,stokedbypublicizedcrashesandmisuseofthetechnology,hasremainedcon-

sistentlyhighovertheyears.ConsumersneedtounderstandandbelieveAVsaresafebeforeanysignificantadoptioncanoccur.

However,itisunrealistictothinkofAVsasinfallibleand100percentsafe,socon-sumerswilleventuallyhavetoacceptsomelevelofriskandunderstandthelim-itationsoftheirvehicle(Litman,2022).Atthispoint,itisuncertainwhatlevelof

safetyisneeded(e.g.,10percentfewercrashes?1,000fewercrashespermiledriv-en?)beforeconsumersandregulatorsareconvincedthattherisksassociatedwithAVsarejustifiedandacceptable.

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BusinessCase

SafetyisnotnecessarilythesolesalespitchforAVs.Theyarealsotoutedasawaytoreducecongestion,lowercosts,maximizeefficiency,andincreaseproductivity(Litman,2022).

MaximizingefficiencyfacesanuphillbattleaslongasAVshavetosharetheroadwithtraditionalvehicles.Anall-AVscenariowouldlikelyoperateefficiently,buttherealityisthattheywillneedtoperformwithtraditionalvehiclesfortheforeseeablefuture.

IntheearlystagesofAVdevelopment,therewasoptimismthatAVswouldrelievetrafficcongestion.However,furtheranalysisofmodality,demand,andvehicle

milestraveled(VMT)projectionsnowchallengethisvision(Litman,2022).Ifin-

creasedadoptionofAVsresultsinmorevehiclesbeingontheroad,congestion

couldactuallyincrease.Forexample,aprivateorfleetvehiclemayopttocontinuedrivingbetweendrop-offpointsinsteadofparkingtoawaitthenexttransaction.Vehiclestallingwithoutariderisanotherpotentialissuethatcouldleadtocon-

gestion.

AsellingpointforAVsistheirapplicationsinridesharingwhichcouldcreatelowercostscomparedtoprivatevehicleownership(Heinekeetal.,2022).AVride-shar-ingshouldalsobecheaperthanatraditionaltaxibecauseoftheloweroperatingcosts.

AnothersellingpointofAVscomesfromconsumers’abilitytofocusonother

tasks.Freedfromtheresponsibilityofdriving,theycannowusetheirphones,eat,orpartakeinothertaskswhiletraveling.

RoundtableparticipantsalsonotedthattrucksandfleetsinageofencedareamaynowbethemostattractiveusecaseforAVs.

WhileAVsholdthepossibilityofprovidingconvenienceandefficiencybenefits,itremainstobeseenwhethertheseanticipatedbenefitssufficientlyoutweighini-tialsafetyconcernsininfluencingconsumeradoption.

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Modality

VariousprojectionsofAVshavebeenpresentedasridesharingvs.privateowner-ship.However,forecastsregardingtheseconsumerpatternshavebeendifficulttoquantifywithareasonabledegreeofcertainty.Variablesinfluencingaconsumershiftfromownershiptoridesharingarecomplicated.Vehicleownershipiscultur-allyingrainedintheU.S.,makingmodelslikeridesharingamorecomplexsellingpoint(Mohammadzadeh,2021).

WhilemanyprojectionsforAVpricingsuggestAVswillbemorecostlythantra-

ditionalvehiclesandsoldatpricepointsoutsidethepricerangeofcomparable

consumersegments,therearequestionsaboutconsumers’willingnesstoditch

ownershipofAVsandsharevehicles.Sincethepandemic,adecreaseintheuseofridesharingsuggeststhatitstillfacessomeadoptionchallenges.However,ifthepriceissufficientlyenticing,potentialusersofridesharingservicesmaybemore

inclinedtousesuchaservice.ThelowoperatingcostsassociatedwithusinganAVforridesharingmayleadtomorefavorablepricing,shiftingconsumerpreferencestowardridesharingandawayfromprivateownership.

OperationalDesignDomainsCondition

AsAVtestinghasprogressed,ithasbecomeclearthatAVs’capabilitieswillbeaf-fectedbythedomaininwhichtheyoperate.OperationalDesignDomains(ODDs)limittheconditionsthataspecifictypeofAVtechnologycanbeused(Berman,

2019).TechnologycanbefullyautonomousinanODDbutprohibitedfromoperat-ingincertain,outsideconditionsorenvironments.ThedifferencebetweenlimitedODDs(Level4)andunlimitedODDs(Level5)isthatlimitedODDsprescribesa

specificgeographicalboundaryorasetofweatherconditionsforAVtechnologyoperation,whileunlimitedODDshasnosuchconstraints-geographicaloroth