英語(yǔ)考試閱讀題翻譯版.docx

Passage 1Normally a student must attend a certain number of courses in order to graduate, and each course which he attends gives him a credit which he may count towards a degree, In many American universities the total work for a degree consists of thirty-six courses each lasting for one semester. A typical course consists of three classes per week for fifteen weeks; while attending a university a student will probably attend four or five courses during each semester. Normally a student. Would expect to take four years attending two semesters each year. It is possible to spread the period of work for the degree over a longer period. It is also possible for a student to move between one university and another during his degree course, though this is not in fact done as a regular practice. For very course that the follows a student is given a grade, which is recorded, and the record is available for the student to show to prospective employers. All this imposes a constant pressure and strain of work , but in spite of this some students still find time for great activity in student affairs. Elections to positions in student organizations arouse much enthusiasm. The effective work of maintaining discipline is usually performed by students who advise the academic authorities. Any student who is thought to have broken the rules, for example, by cheating his to appear before a student court. With the enormous numbers of students, the operation of the system does involve a certain amount of activity. A student who has held one of these positions of authority is much respected and it will be of benefit to him later in his career.通常，一名學(xué)生必須參加一定數(shù)量的課程學(xué)習(xí)才可以畢業(yè)，他上的每一門(mén)課都會(huì)得到學(xué)分，這些學(xué)分累加起來(lái)，才能拿到學(xué)位。在許多美國(guó)大學(xué)里，要拿到學(xué)位就得上門(mén)課，每門(mén)課要上一個(gè)學(xué)期。一門(mén)典型的課程是每個(gè)星期上節(jié)課，共上個(gè)星期；而一名大學(xué)生可能每學(xué)期要學(xué)習(xí)到門(mén)課程。通常每個(gè)學(xué)生都應(yīng)該上年學(xué)，每年兩個(gè)學(xué)期。有可能要花超過(guò)年的時(shí)間才能拿到學(xué)位，也有可能一個(gè)學(xué)生在攻讀學(xué)位時(shí)在兩所不同的大學(xué)上課，然而，這實(shí)際上并不常見(jiàn)。學(xué)生上的每一門(mén)課都會(huì)有一個(gè)分?jǐn)?shù)，分?jǐn)?shù)是有記錄的，學(xué)生可以把他的分?jǐn)?shù)記錄給未來(lái)的雇主看。這些為學(xué)生施加了學(xué)習(xí)上長(zhǎng)期的壓力和負(fù)擔(dān)。但盡管如此，有些學(xué)生還是能擠出時(shí)間來(lái)積極參與學(xué)生活動(dòng)。競(jìng)選學(xué)生組織中的職位能夠激發(fā)很大的熱情。遵守紀(jì)律的有效承諾通常是由向校方提議的學(xué)生們來(lái)執(zhí)行的。任何被認(rèn)為違反了規(guī)定的學(xué)生，比如說(shuō)，考試作弊的學(xué)生，必須在學(xué)生法庭上受審。學(xué)生數(shù)目眾多，則這一體系在動(dòng)作時(shí)就會(huì)涉及到為數(shù)不少的學(xué)生活動(dòng)。在其中擔(dān)任過(guò)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)職位的學(xué)生就會(huì)很受人尊敬，對(duì)他將來(lái)的事業(yè)也很有利。Passage 2Do you find getting up in the morning so difficult that its painful? This might be called laziness, but Dr.Kleitman has a new explanation. He has proved that everyone has a daily energy cycle.During the hours when you labour through your work you may say that youre “hot”. Thats true. The time of day when you feel most energetic is when your cycle of body temperature is at its peak. For some people the peak comes during the forenoon. For others it comes in the afternoon or evening. No one has discovered why this is so, but it leads to such familiar monologues as: “Get up, John! Youll be late for work again!” The possible explanation to the trouble is that John is at his temperature-and-energy peak in the evening. Much family quarrelling ends when husbands and wives realize what these energy cycles mean, and which cycle each member of the family has.You cant change your energy cycle, but you can learn to make you life fit it better. Habit can help, Dr.Kleitman believes. Maybe youre sleepy in the evening but feel you must stay up late anyway. Counteract your cycle to some extent by habitually staying up later than you want to. If your energy is low in the morning, but you have an important job to do early in the day, rise before your usual hour. This wont change your cycle, but youll get up steam and work better at your low point.Get off to a slow start which saves your energy. Get up with a leisurely yawn and stretch. Sit on the edge of the bed a minute before putting your feet on the floor. A void the troublesome search for clean clothes by laying them out the night before. Whenever possible, do routine work in the afternoon and save tasks requiring more energy or concentration for your sharper hours.你是否發(fā)現(xiàn)早上起床很困難以至于是一種痛苦？這也許可以被稱(chēng)作懶惰，但克萊特曼博士有一種新的解釋。他已證明每個(gè)人都有一個(gè)日能量周期。在你工作的時(shí)候，你可能會(huì)說(shuō)你很“熱”。沒(méi)錯(cuò)！一天當(dāng)中你覺(jué)得精力最為充沛的時(shí)候就是你的體溫周期達(dá)到頂峰的時(shí)候。對(duì)一些人來(lái)說(shuō)，這一頂峰會(huì)在午前到來(lái)。而對(duì)另一些人來(lái)說(shuō)，則到下午或是晚上才來(lái)到。還沒(méi)有人能夠提示為什么會(huì)這樣，但這導(dǎo)致了大家都很熟悉的那種自言自語(yǔ)，例如 “該起床了，約翰！又要上班遲到了！”對(duì)這種煩惱可能性的解釋就是他的體溫與能量頂峰在晚上到來(lái)。當(dāng)夫婦們了解到能量周期的意義，并得知每個(gè)家庭成員的能量周期是哪一種類(lèi)型的時(shí)候，很多家庭爭(zhēng)端便結(jié)束了。你無(wú)法改變你的能量周期，但你了解到自己的周期之后可以使你的生活更加適合它?？巳R特曼博士認(rèn)為習(xí)慣是有幫助的。也許你很想睡覺(jué)，但覺(jué)得你無(wú)論如何都得熬夜。習(xí)慣性地延遲睡覺(jué)時(shí)間可以在一定程度上對(duì)抗你的周期。如果你早上能量低，但在一大清早有件很重要的工作要做，就比平時(shí)早些起床。這樣做不會(huì)改變你的周期，但你可以在能量低的時(shí)候鼓起干勁，更好地工作。慢慢地開(kāi)始一天的工作有助于節(jié)約能量。起床時(shí)放松地打個(gè)哈欠，伸伸懶腰，在床上坐一會(huì)兒再下地。前一天晚上把干凈衣服放好，這樣就不用手忙腳亂地到處亂翻。盡可能在下午做常規(guī)工作，把需要更多能量與注意力的任務(wù)留到最佳狀態(tài)的時(shí)候來(lái)處理。Passage 3We find that bright children are rarely held back by mixed-ability teaching. On the contrary, both their knowledge and experience are enriched. We feel that there are many disadvantages in streaming pupils. It does not take into account the fact that children develop at different rates. It can have a bad effect on both the bright and the not-so-bright child. After all, it can be quite discouraging to be at the bottom of the top grade!Besides, it is rather unreal to grade people just according to their intellectual ability. This is only one aspect of their total personality. We are concerned to develop the abilities of all our pupils to the full, not just their academic ability. We also value personal qualities and social skills, and we find that mixed-ability teaching contributes to all these aspects of learning.In our classrooms, we work in various ways. The pupils often work in groups: this gives them the opportunity to learn to co-operate, to share, and to develop leadership skills. They also learn how to cope with personal problems as well as learning how to think, to make decisions, to analyse and evaluate, and to communicate effectively. The pupils learn from each other as well as from the teacher.Sometimes the pupils work in pairs; sometimes they work on individual tasks and assignments, and they can do this at their own speed. They also have some formal class teaching when this is appropriate. We encourage our pupils to use the library , and we teach them the skills they need in order to do this efficiently . An advanced pupil can do advanced work: it does not matter what age the child is . We expect our pupils to do their best, not their least , and we give them every encouragement to attain this goal. 我們發(fā)現(xiàn)，聰明的孩子如果接受不按能力分班的教學(xué)，很少會(huì)因此被拖后了。相反，他們?cè)谥R(shí)和經(jīng)驗(yàn)方面都有長(zhǎng)進(jìn)。我們認(rèn)為把學(xué)生按照能力分班有很多弊端。這種做法沒(méi)有考慮到孩子們發(fā)展情形各不相同這一事實(shí)。對(duì)聰明的孩子和不太聰明的孩子都有不良影響。畢竟，在最好的那一檔里做最差的學(xué)生也夠令人氣餒了！此外，只根據(jù)人的智力水平來(lái)對(duì)人進(jìn)行分類(lèi)也是頗不現(xiàn)實(shí)的。這僅僅是全部人品特征的一個(gè)方面罷了。我們關(guān)心的是讓所有的學(xué)生都能充分發(fā)展各方面的能力，而不僅僅是學(xué)術(shù)能力。我們也很看重個(gè)人品質(zhì)與社交技能，而我們發(fā)現(xiàn)不按能力分班的教學(xué)對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)所有這些方面都很有益在教室里，我們以不同的方式工作。學(xué)生們通常會(huì)以小組為單位進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)；這樣他們便有機(jī)會(huì)學(xué)習(xí)相互合作、分享，以及培養(yǎng)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)技能。他們還能學(xué)到怎樣處理個(gè)人問(wèn)題，以及怎樣思考，怎樣作決定，怎樣分析和評(píng)價(jià)，與怎樣進(jìn)行有效的交流。學(xué)生們不僅向老師學(xué)習(xí)，也可以互相學(xué)習(xí)。有時(shí)，學(xué)生們也會(huì)以結(jié)對(duì)的方式學(xué)習(xí)；還有時(shí)，他們自己完成個(gè)人的任務(wù)，他們可以按照自己的速度來(lái)做。在適當(dāng)?shù)臅r(shí)候，他們也要接受正規(guī)的課堂教學(xué)。我們鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生們使用圖書(shū)館，所以我們要教他們所需的技巧，才能有效地利用好圖書(shū)館。一個(gè)先進(jìn)的學(xué)生可以做先進(jìn)的工作，而他的年齡多大并不重要。我們期望學(xué)生們可以最大限度而不是最小限度地發(fā)揮他們的能力，我們也會(huì)盡量鼓勵(lì)他們達(dá)到定目標(biāo)。Passage 4Nursing at Beth Israel Hospital produces the best patient care possible. If we are to solve the nursing shortage, hospital administration and doctors everywhere would do well to follow Beth Israels example.At Beth Israel each patient is assigned to a primary nurse who visits at length with the patient and constructs a full-scale health account that covers everything from his medical history to his emotional state. Then she writes a care plan centered on the patients illness but which also includes everything else that is necessary.The primary nurse stays with the patient through his hospitalization, keeping track with his progress and seeking further advice from his doctor. If a patient at Beth Israel is not responding to treatment, it is not uncommon for his nurse to propose another approach to his doctor. What the doctor at Beth Israel has in the primary nurse is a true colleague.Nursing at Beth Israel also involves a decentralized（分散的）nursing administration; every floor, every unit is a self-contained organization. There are nurse-managers instead of head nurses; in addition to their medical duties they do all their own hiring and dismissing, employee advising, and they make salary recommendations. Each units nurses decide among themselves who will work what shifts and when.Beth Israels nurse-in-chief ranks as an equal with other vice presidents of the hospital. She also is a member of the Medical Executive Committee, which in most hospitals includes only doctors.Beth Israel醫(yī)院為患者提供有可能得到的最好的護(hù)理。如果我們打算改善護(hù)理中的不足，各地醫(yī)院的行政管理與醫(yī)生只要努力以Beth Israel醫(yī)院為楷模就可以了。在Beth Israel醫(yī)院，每個(gè)病人都會(huì)被分配一名主要護(hù)士，她與病人進(jìn)行詳盡的交談，并會(huì)擬出一份全面的健康報(bào)告，涵蓋所有病人的病史到其精神狀況。然后她會(huì)寫(xiě)出一份護(hù)理計(jì)劃，以患者的病癥為中心，并包括所有必需的內(nèi)容。病人的主要護(hù)士在其住院期間會(huì)與他在一起，對(duì)他的進(jìn)展進(jìn)行記錄，并從醫(yī)生那里得到進(jìn)一步的建議。如果一位在Beth Israel醫(yī)院的病人對(duì)其治療手段沒(méi)有回應(yīng)的話，他的護(hù)士通常會(huì)寫(xiě)出另一份提案交給醫(yī)生。在Beth Israel醫(yī)院的主要護(hù)士是醫(yī)生真正意義上的同事。 在Beth Israel醫(yī)院的護(hù)理工作還有一個(gè)分散的行政管理；每一層樓、每一個(gè)單元都是獨(dú)立的機(jī)構(gòu)。有護(hù)士經(jīng)理而沒(méi)有護(hù)士長(zhǎng)；他們除了有醫(yī)務(wù)工作之外還負(fù)責(zé)自己?jiǎn)卧墓陀门c開(kāi)除，處理雇員建議，并提出建議薪水。每個(gè)單元的護(hù)士一起決定其中誰(shuí)在何時(shí)輪哪一班。Beth Israel醫(yī)院的首席護(hù)士與醫(yī)院副院長(zhǎng)職位相當(dāng)。她還是執(zhí)行醫(yī)療委員會(huì)的成員之一，而在大多數(shù)醫(yī)院只有醫(yī)生才能加入這一委員會(huì)。Passage 5When a consumer finds that an item she or he bought is faulty or in some other way does not live up to the manufacturers claim for it , the first step is to present the warranty（保單）,or amy other records which might help, at the store of purchase. In most cases, this action will produce results. However, if it does not ,there are various means the consumer may use to gain satisfaction. A simple and common method used by many consumers is to complain directly to the store manager. In general, the “higher up ” the consumer takes his or her complaint, the faster the or she can expect it to be settled. In such a case, it is usually settled in the consumers favour, assuming he or she has a just claim. Consumers should complain in person whenever possible, but it they connot get to the place of purchase ,it is acceptable to phone or write the complaint in a letter. Complaining is usually most effective when it is done politely but firmly, and especially when the consumer can demonstrate what is wrong with the item in question. If this cannot be done , the consumer will succeed best by presenting specific information as to what is wrong , rather than by making general statements. For example, “The left speaker does not work at all and the sound coming out of the right one is unclear” is better than “This stereo(立體聲音響) does not work” The store manager may advise the consumer to write to the manufacturer. If so , the consumer should do this ,stating the complaint as firmly as possible. But if a polite complaint does not achieve the desired result, the consumer can go a step further. She or he can threaten to take the seller to court or report the seller to a private or organization responsible for protecting consumers rights.當(dāng)一名顧客發(fā)現(xiàn)他她買(mǎi)的物品有毛病，或是在某方面沒(méi)有達(dá)到制造商所宣稱(chēng)的那樣時(shí)，）他她要做的第一件事就是去原來(lái)的商店，把質(zhì)量保單或任何可能有用的記錄給他們看。在大多數(shù)情況下，這種行動(dòng)很有效。但縱使它無(wú)效，顧客還是可以用各種方法來(lái)使自己得到滿意的處理方式。 許多顧客采用一種簡(jiǎn)單而普通的方式，即直接向商店經(jīng)理抱怨。通常來(lái)說(shuō)，顧客抱怨的對(duì)象越“高級(jí)別”，他們的問(wèn)題就可望更快被解決。在這種情況下，通常是顧客一方贏得了勝利，假設(shè)他們要求合理的話。只要有可能，顧客應(yīng)該當(dāng)面訴說(shuō)，但假如他們沒(méi)法去買(mǎi)東西的地方，在電話里訴說(shuō)或是寫(xiě)信抱怨也是可以接受的。 如果抱怨時(shí)既有禮貌而又足夠堅(jiān)定，那么通常這是最有效力的，特別是當(dāng)顧客能夠闡明到底物品有什么問(wèn)題時(shí)。如果做不到這一點(diǎn)，顧客如能具體說(shuō)明問(wèn)題所在，也會(huì)有最大可能的成功，這比籠統(tǒng)地抱怨要管用。比如說(shuō)，“左邊的喇叭壓根兒不響，右邊的喇叭的聲音也不清楚”，這種話就比只說(shuō)“這個(gè)立體聲音響不好用”要好。 商店的經(jīng)理也許會(huì)建議顧客給制造商寫(xiě)信。如果是這樣的話，顧客應(yīng)該寫(xiě)信，盡可能禮貌而且堅(jiān)定地把問(wèn)題表達(dá)出來(lái)。但如果禮貌的抱怨沒(méi)有達(dá)到預(yù)期的效果，顧客就可以進(jìn)一步行動(dòng)。他們可以威脅說(shuō)要把銷(xiāo)售商告到法庭去或是說(shuō)把銷(xiāo)售商告到某個(gè)私立或公立的保護(hù)消費(fèi)者權(quán)益的機(jī)構(gòu)去。Passage 6If women are mercilessly exploited year after year, they have only themselves to blame. Because they tremble at the thought of being seen in public in clothes that are out of fashion, they are always taken advantage of by the designers and the big stores. Clothes which have been worn only a few times have to be put aside because of the change of fashion. When you come to think of it ,only a woman is capable of standing in front of a wardrobe packed full of clothes and announcing sadly that she has nothing to wear.Changing fashions are nothing more than the intentional creation of waste. Many women spend vast sums of money each year to replace clothes that have hardly been worn. Women who cannot afford to throw away clothing in this way, waste hours of their time altering the dresses they have. Skirts are lengthened or shortened; neck-lines are lowered or raised, and soon. No one can claim that the fashion industry contributes anything really important to society. Fashion designers are rarely concerned with vital things like warmth ,comfort and durability .They are only interested in outward appearance and they take advantage of the fact that women will put up with any amount of discomfort, as long as they look right. There can hardly be a man who hasnt at some time in his life smiled at the sight of a woman shaking in a thin dress on a winter day, or delicately picking her way through deep snow in high-heeled shoes.When comparing men and women in the matter of fashion, the conclusions to be drawn are obvious. Do the constantly changing fashions of womens clothes, one wonders, reflect basic qualities of inconstancy and instability Men are too clever to let themselves be cheated by fashion designers. Do their unchanging styles of dress reflect basic qualities of stability and reliability That is for you to decide.如果女人們年復(fù)一年地被無(wú)情地剝削，那只能怪她們自己。因?yàn)榕藗冎灰氲阶约涸诠妶?chǎng)合穿著過(guò)時(shí)的衣服就禁不住渾身發(fā)抖（）她們總是因此被設(shè)計(jì)師和大商店利用了。才穿過(guò)幾次的衣服就得被丟到一邊，因?yàn)闀r(shí)尚改變了。想想看，只有女人才會(huì)站在堆滿了衣服的衣柜前還悲傷地宣布她沒(méi)有衣服可穿。（）改變時(shí)尚潮流無(wú)異于故意浪費(fèi)。許多女人每年花大筆的錢(qián)買(mǎi)新衣服來(lái)取代那些幾乎沒(méi)有穿過(guò)的衣服。（）沒(méi)有錢(qián)以這種方式扔掉舊衣的女人們則要花上幾個(gè)小時(shí)的時(shí)間對(duì)她們已有的衣服進(jìn)行改制。加長(zhǎng)或是剪短裙子；放低或是加高領(lǐng)口，諸如此類(lèi)。沒(méi)有人可以說(shuō)時(shí)尚業(yè)對(duì)社會(huì)做出了真正重大的貢獻(xiàn)。（）時(shí)裝設(shè)計(jì)師很少關(guān)注諸如暖和、舒適和耐用等最重要的方面。他們只對(duì)外觀感興趣，而且他們利用了這樣一種事實(shí)，即女人們只要自己看起來(lái)不錯(cuò)，再不舒服也能忍著。男人們?cè)谏钪袔缀醵荚吹竭^(guò)這些好笑的景象：在冬天里只穿一條薄裙子的女人在瑟瑟發(fā)抖，或是穿著高跟鞋小心翼翼地在厚厚的雪地中找路。要在時(shí)尚方面把男人和女人作一個(gè)比較，得出的結(jié)論是顯而易見(jiàn)的。人們不禁要問(wèn)，女人的時(shí)裝不斷地變化是否反映了不能持久和不穩(wěn)定的本質(zhì)呢？（）男人們是聰明的，他們不會(huì)讓時(shí)裝設(shè)計(jì)師來(lái)欺騙自己。他們不改變衣服款式是否又反映了穩(wěn)定可靠的本質(zhì)呢？這得由您來(lái)決定了。Passage 7Many a young person tells me he wants to be a writer. I always encourage such people, but I also explain that theres a big difference between being a writer, and writing. In most cases these individuals are dreaming of wealth and fame, not the long hours alone at a typewriter. Youve got to want to write, I say to them, not want to be a writer. The reality is that writing is a lonely, private and poor-paying affair. For every writer kissed by fortune there are thousands more whose longing is never rewarded. When I left a 20-year career in the U.S. Coast Guard to become a freelance writer, I had no prospects at all: What I did have was a friend who found me my r Tm in a New York apartment building. It didnt even matter that it was cold and had no bathroom. I immediately bought a used manual typewriter and felt like a genuine writer. After a year or so, however, I still hadnt gotten a break and began to doubt myself. It was so hard to sell a story that barely made enough to eat. But I knew I wanted to write. I had dreamed about it for years. I wasnt going to be one of those people who die wondering, What if I would keep putting my dream to the test-even though it meant living with uncertainty and fear of failure. This is the Shadowland of hope, and anyone with a dream must learn to live there.很多年輕人對(duì)我說(shuō)他們想當(dāng)作家。我總是鼓勵(lì)這樣的青年，但同時(shí)我也向他們說(shuō)明“當(dāng)作家”和寫(xiě)作的區(qū)別是很大的。在很多情況下，那些想當(dāng)作家的人向往的是金錢(qián)和名譽(yù)，而不是獨(dú)自守著打字機(jī)的漫長(zhǎng)日子。我對(duì)他們說(shuō)，“你必須是想寫(xiě)，而不應(yīng)是想當(dāng)作家?！笔聦?shí)上，寫(xiě)作是一件令人寂寞，孤獨(dú)而且報(bào)酬又不高的事情。在每一個(gè)受到命運(yùn)之神青睞的作家背后，還有成百上千的不走運(yùn)的作家，這些人的渴望從沒(méi)有得到過(guò)回報(bào)。當(dāng)我辭別了我在美國(guó)海岸警衛(wèi)隊(duì)20年工作成為一個(gè)自由撰稿人時(shí)，沒(méi)有任何前途可言。我只有一個(gè)朋友，他在紐約的一幢公寓里給我找了一個(gè)房間。盡管房間很冷而且連洗漱間也沒(méi)有，不過(guò)這都沒(méi)關(guān)系。我馬上買(mǎi)了一臺(tái)舊的手動(dòng)打字機(jī)，感覺(jué)自己就好像是一個(gè)真正的作家了。然而，大約一年后，我仍然沒(méi)有任何進(jìn)展并開(kāi)始懷疑自己。要賣(mài)出一篇暫且可以糊口的作品是如此之難。但我知道我有寫(xiě)作的欲望。這是我多年以來(lái)的夢(mèng)想。我不會(huì)像有些人那樣，在臨終前還在想，當(dāng)初如果不放棄該多好啊!我會(huì)繼續(xù)接受考驗(yàn)，即使這意味著變化無(wú)常的生活和對(duì)失敗的擔(dān)心。這其實(shí)也是夢(mèng)想實(shí)現(xiàn)以前的一種虛幻的境界，每一個(gè)有夢(mèng)想的人都應(yīng)該學(xué)會(huì)在這種境遇中生活。Passage 8Oceanography has been defined as “The application of all sciences to the study of the sea”.Before the nineteenth century ,scientists with an interest in the sea were few and far between.Certainly Newton considered some theoretical aspects of it in his writings ,but he was reluctant to go to sea to further his work.For most people the sea was remote, and with the exception of early intercontinental travelers or others who earned a living from the sea ,there was little reason to ask many questions about it ,let alone to ask what lay beneath the surface. The first time that the question ”what is at the bottom of the oceans? ”had to be answered with any commercial consequence was when the laying of a telegraph cable from Europe to America was proposed. The engineers had to know the depth profile of the route to estimate the length of cable that had to be manufactured.It was to Maury of the US Navy that the Atlantic Telegraph Company turned, in 1853, for information on this matter. In the 1840s, Maury had been responsible for encouraging voyages during which soundings were taken to investigate the depths of the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Later, some of his findings aroused much popular interest in his book The Physical Geography of the Sea.The cable was laid, but not until 1866 was the connection made permanent and reliable. At the early attempts, the cable failed and when it was taken out for repairs it was found to be covered in living growths, a fact which defied contemporary scientific opinion that there was no life in the deeper parts of the sea.Within a few years oceanography was under way. In 1872 Thomson led a scientific expedition, which lasted four years and brought home thousands of samples from the sea. Their classification and analysis occupied scientists for years and led to a five-volume report, the last volume being published in 1895.海洋學(xué)的定義是“慶用所有的科學(xué)來(lái)研究海洋”世紀(jì)以前，極少有科學(xué)家對(duì)研究海洋感興趣，當(dāng)然，牛頓在他的作品中對(duì)海洋做了一些理論方面的探討，但他并不情愿自己去海邊作進(jìn)一步的研究。對(duì)大多數(shù)人來(lái)說(shuō)，海洋是遙遠(yuǎn)的，除了早期穿越洲際的旅行家們以及依靠海洋維持生計(jì)的人，幾乎找不出理由要提出關(guān)于海洋的問(wèn)題，更不會(huì)問(wèn)海洋表面下還有些什么東西。人們第一次必須回答“海洋底部是什么？”這個(gè)問(wèn)題是有商業(yè)上的后果的，當(dāng)時(shí)有人提議要鋪設(shè)一條從歐洲到美洲的電報(bào)纜線。工程師們必須了解路線的縱深起伏形狀，才可以估計(jì)需要制造多長(zhǎng)的電纜。由于美國(guó)海軍的莫里（Maury），大西洋電報(bào)公司才在年得到了這方面的信息。世紀(jì)年代，莫里負(fù)責(zé)推動(dòng)進(jìn)行測(cè)探工作的海上航行，以此來(lái)調(diào)查北大西洋與太平洋的深度。此后，他出了一本叫做海洋的自然地貌的書(shū)，在這本書(shū)里他提到的一些發(fā)現(xiàn)激起了人們很大的興趣。人們鋪設(shè)了電纜，但直到年，才有了固定而且可靠的連接。在早期的努力中，電纜壞了，而當(dāng)它被拉出來(lái)維修時(shí)，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)其表面覆蓋著活的生物。這一事實(shí)挑戰(zhàn)了當(dāng)時(shí)的一種科學(xué)觀點(diǎn)，即海洋較深層是不存在生命的。海洋學(xué)在此后幾年內(nèi)發(fā)展起來(lái)。年，湯姆森（Thomson），帶頭進(jìn)行了一項(xiàng)科學(xué)考察，歷時(shí)年，從海洋帶回了數(shù)以千計(jì)的標(biāo)本?？茖W(xué)家們花了數(shù)年時(shí)間將它們分類(lèi)并進(jìn)行分析，寫(xiě)出了一個(gè)長(zhǎng)達(dá)五卷的報(bào)告，其中最后一卷于年出版。Passage 9Just seven years ago, the Jarvik