語言學(xué)概論chpt2-phonetics-and-phonology

1、Chapter 2 Phonetics ph aspirated bilabial stop. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages e.g. There is only one p in English consonant system. Phonological environment determines different variants of p. /p/ p /s _ ph elsewhere,Phonetics,Three Branches of Phonetics

2、 Speech organs Orthographic representation of speech sounds Classification of English speech sounds,Three Branches of Phonetics,Articulatory phonetics-from the speakers point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds” 發(fā)音語音學(xué) Auditory phonetics-from the hearers point of view, “how sounds are percei

3、ved” 聽覺語音學(xué) Acoustic phonetics-from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.聲學(xué)語音學(xué),Speech organs: three important areas,Pharyngeal cavity - the throat; Laryngeal The oral cavity - the mouth; Nasal cavity - the nose.,The Diagram of Speech Organs,Lips Teeth Teeth ri

4、dge (alveolar) Hard palate 硬顎 Soft palate (velum)軟顎 Uvula Tip of tongue Blade of tongue Back of tongue Vocal cords 聲帶 Pharyngeal cavity Nasal cavity,Orthographic representation (詞形表征,正字法 ) of speech sounds,A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the Internatio

5、nal Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.,Broad transcription (寬式標(biāo)音) a simple set of symbols used in dictionary no diacritics e.g. kn, pit Narrow transcription (嚴(yán)式音標(biāo)) more specific symbols used by phonetician for careful study, wit

6、h diacritics, e.g. , ph,Some Major Articulatory Variables,Dimensions on which speech sounds may vary: Voicing- voiced Fricatives 擦音: f, v, s, z, , , , , h; Affricates 塞擦音: , ; Liquids 流音: l, r; Nasals 鼻音: m, n, ; glides/semivowels 滑音/半元音: w, j.,The place of articulation,Bilabial 雙唇音: p, b, m, w; Lab

7、iodental 唇齒音: f, v; Dental 齒音: , ; Alveolar 齒齦音: t, d, s, z, n, l, r; Palatal 顎音: , , , , j; Velar 軟顎音: k, g, ; Glottal 聲門音: h.,The place of articulation,Bilabial; Labiodental; Dental or interdental; Alveolar; Palatoalveolar; Palatal; Velar; Uvular; Glottal.,The description of English consonants,Cla

8、ssification of vowels,English vowels can be divided into three large categories: Monophthongs , u: Diphthongs (as in “toy”), Triphthong a (as in “tower”),Description of monophthongs,Height of the tongue Openness of the mouth Rounded vs. unrounded u: vs. i:, vs. Long or short i: vs. ; u: vs. ,Height

9、of the tongue,-According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front vowels: i:, , e, , central vowels: :, , ; back vowels: u:, , :, , a:.,Openness of the mouth,Close: i:, , u:, , Semi-close: e, :; Semi-open: , :; Open: , , , a:

10、.,Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.,A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had lad A velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat pat An alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quick A palato-alveolar consonant: sip sh

11、ip tip chip lip zip A dental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie rye A glide: one war yolk rush,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,Underline the words that end with a sound as required:,A fricative pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message A nasal train bang leaf limb A stop dril

12、l pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tip An affricate: rack such ridge booze,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,Underline the words that contain the sound as required:,A central vowel: mad lot but boot word A front vowel: reed pad load fate bit bed cook A rounded vowel: who he bus her hit

13、true boss bar walk A back vowel: paid reap fool top good father,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,Describe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:,vd/vl place manner Letter Brother Sunny Hopper Itching Lodger Calling Singing Robber either,voiceless,voiceless,voiceless,voiced,voiced,voiced

14、,voiced,voiced,voiced,voiced,alveolar,alveolar,alveolar,dental,dental,bilabial,palatal,palatal,velar,bilabial,stop,stop,stop,fricative,nasal,affricate,affricate,liquid,nasal,fricative,Phonology,Distinction between Phonetics and Phonology Basic concepts in phonology Tasks of Phonologists Suprasegment

15、al features,Can you understand the distinction bt phonetics and phonology?,Both are concerned with speech sounds in human language. They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics: concerning all the speech sounds in human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what ph

16、onetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology: how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.,Making decisions: is the following statement on phonology or on phonetics?,Clear l (as in “l(fā)eap”) vs. dark

17、 (as in “peel”) 1. They are all liquids. 2. They are two varieties of the same entity in English sound system. 3. They are quite different in sound quality. 4. It is the phonetic environment that determines their distribution.,Phonetics,Phonology,Phonetics,Phonology,Basic concepts in Phonology,Phone

18、 Phoneme Allophone Distinctive features,Phone,A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some dont. Speech sound = phone = segment (音段) eg: ph, p, s, t, f, i:, l,

19、音素,Phoneme,A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context. Eg: In English, there are altogether 44 phonemes. /e/, /m/, /b/, /i:/, /p/, etc.,音位,Allophone,Allophone

20、s: the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. p, ph are two variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. /p/ p /s _ ph elsewhere,音位變體,Their relationships:,In actual speech, aphonemeis realized phonetically as a ce

21、rtain phone. Allophone is a phonetic variant of aphoneme.,Distinction among the three,Phone 音素: 語音層面；具體；不限于某一種語言 Phoneme 音位：音系層面；抽象；每種語言都有特定的音位集 Allophone 音位變體：相對(duì)于音位而言；具體；抽象的音位在不同語音環(huán)境下的具體體現(xiàn)。至少兩個(gè)以上成組出現(xiàn),Discussion,tan thn tap thph spit spth stint stnth How many phones, phonemes, and allophones are the

22、re? What are they? Phones: th, , n, , ph, s, p, , t Phonemes: t, , n, p, s, Allophones: th, t, , , ph, p,Distinctive features,The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from others, are its distinctive features. Distinctive features are binary (+,-)in nature.,區(qū)別性特征,word,s,g,m,n,t,syl

23、labic sonorant voiced nasal,Word level,syllable level,segment,Feature level,For /p/, its distinctive features are -voiced, +bilabial, +stop. However, +aspirated is not a distinctive feature for /p/ in English.,Tasks of Phonologists,Task one: to identify phonemes in a language Task two: to formulate

24、rules to explain sound patterns,Task one: to identify phonemes in a language,Phonetically similar sounds may have two relationships. They may be two different phonemes or allophones of the same phoneme. 兩個(gè)相似音在某語言中可能的關(guān)系：為兩個(gè)音位；為一個(gè)音位的兩個(gè)音位變體；或其中一個(gè)是音位，另一個(gè)不是。,Phonemic contrast,If two similar sounds are di

25、fferent or distinctive phonemes, they are in phonemic contrast. e.g.: /b/ and /p/ in bt and pt. The best way to determine if two similar sounds are in phonemic contrast is to find the minimal pair.,音位對(duì)立,Complementary distribution,If two phonetically similar sounds are allophones of the same phoneme,

26、 they are in complementary distribution. Complementary distributionis the relationship between two different sounds, where one sound is found in a particular environment and the other is found in the opposite environment. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts,. e

27、.g. dark l 鼻pi，皮phi 漢語拼音和國(guó)際音標(biāo)對(duì)照表,Some rules of phonology,Sequential rules Assimilation rule Deletion rule Epenthesis rule,Sequential rules,Sequential rules are the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. Youre given four phonemes “k b i l”. What English sounds will you

28、think of? possible words: blik, klib, bilk, kilb. impossible words:lbik, libk, ilbk, lbki,在英語中作為音節(jié)首音(Onset ) 的輔音連綴只有CC 和CCC 兩種模式。,CC的組合方式可以分為兩類 第一類是, 第一個(gè)輔音由/ p , t , k , b , d , g , m , n , l , f ,v , , , h/ 這些輔音中的一個(gè)充當(dāng), 第二個(gè)輔音則由/ l , r , w , j/ 中的一個(gè)擔(dān)任, 其組合模式有著嚴(yán)格的限制: p + l , r , j b + l , r , j t + r

29、, j , w d + r , j , w k + l , r , j , w g + l , r , j , w m + j f + l , r , j n + j . + r , j , w l + j + r v + j h + j,Thats why lbik and lbki are impossible combinations in English.,CC 組合的第二類模式是, 第一個(gè)輔音為/ s/ , 第二個(gè)輔音由/ p , t , k , f , m , n , l , w , j/ 這9 個(gè)輔音中的一個(gè)充當(dāng)。 Examples?, s,p,t,k,(l),r,(w),j,在

30、英語中作為音節(jié)首音(Onset ) 的輔音連綴為CCC時(shí)：,e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.,Sequential rules are language-specific.,The velar nasal never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese, but it does occur in some dialects such as Hakka. eg: in English: /nait/, /ait/; /ni:s/, /i:s/ in Hak

31、ka: “我， 俄語” 英漢音節(jié)結(jié)構(gòu)比較和語音教學(xué),Assimilation rule,One sound is assimilated to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts: indiscreet n alveolar inconceivable velar impossible m

32、 bilabial,Nasalization, dentalization, and devoicing are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.,Nasalization and dentalization,English Fricative Devoicing,Formula of rules,Nasalization rule: -nasal +nasal / _ +nasa

33、l Dentalization rule: -dental +dental / _ +dental Devoicing rule: /v/ f /z/ s etc. voiced fricative voiceless / _ voiceless,Assimilation can occur in phrases and sentences too.,Examples: 1) five past faifpa:st 2) has to hstu: 3) You can k keep them.,Assimilation in Mandarin,好啊 hao wa 海啊 hai ya 看啊 ka

34、n na 唱啊 chang a 跳啊 tiao wa ,Deletion rule,Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. E.G 1. design, paradigm, there is no g sound; but the g sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.,Example 2: Schwa

35、deletion in English,In quick speech, the following words are often pronounced with the schwa deleted: Factory, dormitory, police, parade,English has the tendency to delete schwa when it appears in a mid-word syllable that comes after the stressed syllable. Kenstowicz (1994) states that “. American E

36、nglish schwa deletes in medial posttonic (重讀音節(jié)后的) syllables ., and gives as examples words such as sep(a)rate ,choc(o)late, cam(e)ra andelab(o)rate(as an adjective), where the schwa (represented by the letters in parentheses) has a tendency to be deleted.,Schwa deletion rule in English:, / C _ C V /

37、 C V C _ C V,+stress,+stress,C means “any number of successive Cs from zero on up”.,To sum up, schwa in an unstressed syllable can be deleted.,Epenthesis rule, /s _ s,a hotel , a boy, a use , a wagon a big man,an apple , an honor, an old lady,Another example of Epenthesis rule: an is used when the f

38、ollowing word begins with a vowel sound.,Can you write a formula to explain the rule?,Suprasegmental features,When we speak English, we have to pay attention to two aspects of sound system: pronunciation and intonation.,Pronunciation,phones/segments,Intonation,suprasegmental features,Suprasegmental

39、features 超音段特征,Suprasegmental features-the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments, or those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. 超音段特征指音段以上單位所涉及的語音特征,Syllable structure Syllabification 音節(jié)劃分,Syllable structure,Sounds are sequentially organized within w

40、ords. These sequences are called syllables, phonological units consisting of one or more sounds. A syllable is subdivided into onset (節(jié)首)and rhyme（節(jié)韻）.The rhyme consists of a nucleus（節(jié)核,usually a vowel) and any consonant(s) following it, the coda（節(jié)尾）.,How are we able to identify a syllable and hence

41、 count the number of syllables of each word? Recognition of the nucleus(音核),The nucleus is the essential part, usu. formed by a vowel. But l, n, m might also function as nucleus as in “apple, hidden, communism ”, Onset Rime Nucleus Coda k r k t,Syllable structure,Rhyme (韻基) = Nucleus + Coda Two word

42、s are said to be rhyming with each other if they have the same rhyme. Main and plain Street and sheet,Open syllable: bar, tie Closed syllable: bard, tied 英漢語中可允許的最大音節(jié) English Syllable: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C) Mandarin Chinese syllable: (C)V(C),Syllabification 音節(jié)劃分,Sequence of syllabification Nucleus onset

43、 coda Maximal Onset Principle 節(jié)首最大化原則 When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. English phonotactic constraints,English phonotactic constraints,In the English language, there are various phonotactic constraints with regard to the possible

44、 combinations and sequencing of consonants in the onset and coda positions. lig or vig. fs or rn violating some constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes.,They are possible English words.,In other words, consonants should be organized into the onset of a following syllable without

45、violating the phonotactic constraints (i.e. permitted arrangements of sounds) in English.,Syllabification (take “estrange” as an example),Onset,Rhyme,Nucleus,Rhyme,Nucleus,Coda,i,s,t,r,ei,n,Practice: Syllabify the following words,Aspirin Splendid extreme,Principal suprasegmental features,Stress,In E

46、nglish, we do not say each syllable with the same force or strength. In one word, we accentuate ONE syllable. We say one syllable very loudly (big, strong, important) and all the other syllables very quietly. e.g photograph, photographer , photographic,Word stress,The location of stress in English d

47、istinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word: verb: import; increase; record noun: import; increase; record ,Word stress,Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements: compound: blackbi

48、rd; greenhouse; hotdog noun phrase: black bird; green house; hot dog,Word stress,The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns: modifier: dining-room; reading room; sleeping bag doer: sleeping baby; swimming fish; flying plane,Sente

49、nce stress,Sentence stress-the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not str

50、essed. Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.,Tone,Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is. ma 媽 (level) ma 麻 (the s

51、econd rise) ma 馬 (the third rise) ma 罵 (the fourth fall),笑話：,甲：您好哇？出來多久啦，過得慣嗎？ 乙：您好！出來一年多了，其它還好，就是聽外國(guó)人講話太別扭？ 甲：可不是嗎！明明是老鼠，他們偏說是“貓”（mouse);明明是水，他們偏說是“窩頭”（water）；明明是小偷，他們非說媳婦（thief）。 乙：您說得太對(duì)了！外國(guó)人很奇怪，英國(guó)人早上起來總說“摸人”（morning），晚上見你又叫你“姑奶“（good night)。,Intonation,When pitch, stress and length variations are

52、 tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used: falling tone (matter of fact statement) rising tone (doubts or question) the fall-rise tone (implied message) For instance, “Thats not the bo

53、ok he wants.”,Grammatical functions of intonations,-Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English. a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction. Falling tone: statement rising tone: question,Grammatical functions of intona

54、tions,b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units. e.g. “John didnt come because of Marry” Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry. With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John

55、 didnt come. Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations: “Those who bought quickly made a profit.”,Grammatical functions of intonations,c) Its attitudinal functions. Falling tone - matter-of-fact statement, downright assertion, commands. Rising tone -politeness, encouragement, pleading. Note: these