耶魯大學(xué)心理學(xué)導(dǎo)論（第五課）

1、心理學(xué)導(dǎo)論第五課我們這些天所講的most of what we do these days,各種方法 理論 思想our methods, our theories, our ideas,它們的形成都在一定程度上are shaped, to some extent,受到了皮亞杰的影響by piagets influence.所以 這堂課我想and so, what i want to do is begin this class通過(guò)他的理論 thats going to talk about cognitive development來(lái)講講認(rèn)知發(fā)展by talking about his ide

2、as.皮亞杰認(rèn)為 兒童是主動(dòng)思考者h(yuǎn)is idea was that children are active thinkers;他們?cè)噲D去理解世界theyre trying to figure out the world.他常把兒童稱(chēng)為小科學(xué)家he often described them as little scientists.我想順便提一下他為何會(huì)去研究?jī)和痑nd incidentally, to know where hes coming from on this,他有著一個(gè)宏偉且遠(yuǎn)大的目標(biāo)he had a very dramatic and ambitious goal.他研究的初衷

3、并不是出于對(duì)兒童的興趣he didnt start off because he was interested in children.而是出于he started off他對(duì)認(rèn)識(shí)產(chǎn)生的一般規(guī)律的興趣because he was interested in the emergence of knowledge in general.皮亞杰主張發(fā)生認(rèn)識(shí)論it was a discipline he described as genetic epistemology即 認(rèn)識(shí)的起源the origins of knowledge.但是 由于他深信but he studied development

4、of the individual child個(gè)體兒童的發(fā)展because he was convinced能夠表現(xiàn)出認(rèn)識(shí)發(fā)展的一般規(guī)律that this development will tell him所以他才選擇去研究個(gè)體兒童的發(fā)展about the development of knowledge more generally.有一個(gè)聽(tīng)上去很傲慢的短語(yǔ)theres a very snooty phrase that-不知你們之前是否已經(jīng)有所耳聞i dont know if you ever heard it before.這是一個(gè)很非常了不起的短語(yǔ)its a great phrase.

5、叫做胚胎重演律its ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.這個(gè)短語(yǔ)的意思是and the idea of this-what that means is個(gè)體的發(fā)展that development of an individual模擬或重演了種族的發(fā)展mimics or repeats development of the species.現(xiàn)在看來(lái) 這個(gè)觀點(diǎn)完全錯(cuò)誤now, its entirely not true,但這卻是個(gè)美妙的短語(yǔ)but its a beautiful phrase皮亞杰對(duì)此深信不疑and piaget was committed to th

6、is.他常說(shuō)he was very interested in saying,只要能夠理解兒童如何發(fā)展look. well figure how a kid develops and就能夠理解認(rèn)識(shí)發(fā)展的一般規(guī)律that will tell us about the development of knowledge more generally.皮亞杰將兒童視為科學(xué)家so, piaget viewed the child as a scientist認(rèn)為兒童能夠形成關(guān)于世界的who developed this understanding, these schemas,一系列看法 圖示 或者說(shuō)小

7、型理論these little miniature theories of the world.而這一過(guò)程可以通過(guò)兩種機(jī)制實(shí)現(xiàn)and they did this through two sorts of mechanisms:同化和順應(yīng)assimilation and accommodation.同化是指so, assimilation would be the act of expanding反應(yīng)范圍的擴(kuò)大the range of things that you respond to.皮亞杰舉例說(shuō)piagets example would be一個(gè)習(xí)慣吸吮乳房的嬰兒a baby whos u

8、sed to sucking on a breast可能會(huì)去吸吮奶瓶或是撥浪鼓might come to suck on a bottle or on a rattle.這就是在改變反應(yīng)范圍了thats changing the scope of things that you respond to.順應(yīng)是改變你的行為方式accommodation is changing how you do it.嬰兒會(huì)因?yàn)槲蔽矬w的不同a baby will form his mouth differently而改變他的嘴型depending on what hes sucking on.所以你們聽(tīng)到的這

9、些過(guò)程and so, these processes where you take in-我剛才是從生理的角度來(lái)談?wù)撨@些過(guò)程的im giving this in a very physical way,從心理上來(lái)講but in a more psychological sense你擁有一種看待世界的方式y(tǒng)ou have a way of looking at the world.你將新信息納入已有的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)中you could expand it to encompass new things,便是同化assimilation.你改變已有的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)but you could also chan

10、ge以適應(yīng)新的環(huán)境和信息your system of knowledge itself,便是順應(yīng)accommodation.皮亞杰認(rèn)為 這兩種學(xué)習(xí)機(jī)制and piaget argued that these two mechanisms of learning幫助兒童跨越各個(gè)階段drove the child through different stages.他提出了一個(gè)階段理論and he had a stage theory,這個(gè)階段理論與我們之前所介紹的which was quite different from the freudian stage theory弗洛伊德的階段理論有著很

11、大的不同that we have been introduced to.他所用的研究方法是so his methods要求兒童解決問(wèn)題were to ask children to solve problems并詢(xún)問(wèn)他們一些問(wèn)題and to ask them questions.他發(fā)現(xiàn)and his discoveries that-兒童在不同的年齡擁有不同的行為方式they did them in different ways at different ages他根據(jù)這一發(fā)現(xiàn)提出了階段理論led to the emergence of the stage theory.皮亞杰認(rèn)為 第一個(gè)階段

12、 so, for piaget, the first stage是感知運(yùn)動(dòng)階段is the sensorimotor stage或者說(shuō) 感知運(yùn)動(dòng)期or the sensorimotor period.在此階段 兒童只是個(gè)純粹的自然生物for here the child is purely a physical creature.兒童對(duì)于外部世界并沒(méi)有什么真正的認(rèn)識(shí)the child has no understanding in any real way of the external world.他們對(duì)于過(guò)去theres no understanding of the past,未來(lái) 穩(wěn)定

13、 差別no understanding of the future, no stability,沒(méi)有任何的概念no differentiation.兒童只是觸摸和觀看the child just touches and sees,但還不能進(jìn)行邏輯推理but doesnt yet reason.在這一階段 兒童逐漸發(fā)展起and its through this stage that a child gradually comes to acquire客體永存性的概念object permanence.客體永存性是指object permanence is知道某人或某物雖然現(xiàn)在看不見(jiàn)the und

14、erstanding that things exist但仍然是存在的when you no longer see them.前面的各位so those of you in front,你們看著我躲在這里youre looking at me and i go.如果我突然在后排出現(xiàn)it occurred to me itd be a great magic trick那就是非常精彩的魔術(shù)了if i then appeared in back.但我沒(méi)動(dòng) 我還在這but no, im just here.這就是客體永存性thats object permanence.如果我蹲在這里 有人說(shuō)if i

15、 went under here and then the people said,他去哪了 下課了耶where the hell did he go? class is over,這話就表現(xiàn)出他缺乏客體永存性的概念that would show a lack of object permanence.成年人是擁有客體永存性概念的so, adults have object permanence.皮亞杰認(rèn)為 嬰兒并沒(méi)有這一概念piagets very interesting claim is that kids dont.皮亞杰發(fā)現(xiàn) 在六個(gè)月之前before six-month-olds, p

16、iaget observed,你將嬰兒喜歡的物體 比如說(shuō)撥浪鼓you take an object the kid likes like a rattle,藏起來(lái) 隱藏在某物的后面you hide it, you put it behind something,就像這東西消失了一樣its like its gone.皮亞杰認(rèn)為and he claimed嬰兒真的會(huì)以為the child really thinks他喜歡的東西就這么憑空消失了its just gone.只要物體從嬰兒的視野中消失things dont continue to exist嬰兒就會(huì)認(rèn)為物體已經(jīng)不存在了when im

17、not looking at them anymore.他注意到and so he noticed they-兒童會(huì)對(duì)捉迷藏感到驚奇theyre surprised by peek-a-boo.皮亞杰認(rèn)為and piagets claim was one reason他們對(duì)捉迷藏感到驚奇的一個(gè)原因便是why theyre surprised at peek-a-boo你憑空消失了 你看著嬰兒is you go- you look at a kid,嬰兒會(huì)對(duì)你笑 然后你和他玩捉迷藏the kids smiling and go,躲貓貓oh, peek-a-boo,你用雙手遮住了你的臉 and y

18、ou close-and you cover your face嬰兒會(huì)以為 他不見(jiàn)了 and the kid says, hes gone.躲貓貓 哈 他回來(lái)了peek-a-boo. oh, there he is. 他又不見(jiàn)了hes gone.這就是他的觀點(diǎn)了and you really-thats the claim.皮亞杰還發(fā)現(xiàn)piaget also discovered稍大的嬰兒無(wú)法完成that older children fail at a taska非b錯(cuò)誤任務(wù)thats known as the a-not-b task.彼得格雷在他的心理學(xué)教科書(shū)中and peter gray

19、 in his psychology textbook refers to it將這一任務(wù)稱(chēng)為變換藏身地問(wèn)題as the changing hiding places problem,這可能是個(gè)更為恰當(dāng)?shù)拿謜hich is probably a better name for it.這個(gè)任務(wù)的內(nèi)容如下and heres the idea.你找到一個(gè)九個(gè)月大的嬰兒you take a nine-month-old在皮亞杰看來(lái)and for piaget九個(gè)月大的嬰兒才剛剛發(fā)展出a nine-month-old is just starting客體以及客體永存性的概念to make sense

20、of objects and their permanence.你將物體放到這里的一個(gè)杯子中you take an object and you put it here in a cup嬰兒看不見(jiàn)這個(gè)物體where the kid cant see it,但這個(gè)物體是在杯子之中的but its in the cup.如果你是這個(gè)嬰兒 你便會(huì)伸手去拿so the kid, if you were the kid, will reach for it.你再做一遍 他會(huì)伸手去拿you do it again, reach for it.你再做一遍 他還是會(huì)伸手去拿you do it again, r

21、each for it.這個(gè)地點(diǎn)是athats point a.然后你把杯子拿到這邊then you take-you move it over here.皮亞杰觀察到piaget observed嬰兒仍然會(huì)將手伸向此處 kids would still reach for this.好像他們還不夠聰明 不能明白its like theyre not smart enough to figure out物體已經(jīng)不在那里了that its not there anymore,即使他們看到物體被拿走了even if they see it move.這更證明了 他們并不理解客體的概念and thi

22、s was more evidence that they just dont understand objects,而這種概念需要通過(guò)大量的時(shí)間學(xué)習(xí)and that this thing takes a lot of time and learning才能夠掌握to develop.下一個(gè)階段是前運(yùn)算階段the next stage is the preoperational stage.開(kāi)始的時(shí)候 兒童只能通過(guò)生理的方式the child starts off grasping the world通過(guò)感知運(yùn)動(dòng)的方式only in a physical way,來(lái)認(rèn)識(shí)世界in a senso

23、rimotor way,但是當(dāng)兒童進(jìn)入了前運(yùn)算階段but when he gets to the preoperational period,他們便逐漸擁有了表征事物the capacity to represent the world,在頭腦中構(gòu)建世界的能力to have the world inside your head, comes into being.但這種能力是有局限的but its limited表現(xiàn)在以下幾個(gè)顯著方面and its limited in a couple of striking ways.局限之一 兒童是以自我為中心的one way in which its

24、limited is that children are egocentric.自我中心這個(gè)詞在如今的日常英語(yǔ)里now, egocentrism has a meaning in common english是自私的意思which means to be selfish.皮亞杰對(duì)該詞的定義則更為專(zhuān)業(yè)piaget meant it in a more technical way.他認(rèn)為這個(gè)年齡的兒童完全沒(méi)有意識(shí)到he claimed that children at this age literally cant understand別人眼中的世界that others can see the

25、world可以與自己看到的世界有所不同differently from them.他的證據(jù)之一就是三山實(shí)驗(yàn)so, one of his demonstrations was the three mountains task.那里有三座不同的假山模型we have three mountains over there.你讓孩子在模型的一邊you put a child on one side of the mountains要求他把自己看到的三山模型畫(huà)出來(lái)and you ask him to draw it,四五歲的兒童便能夠輕易做到and a four- or five-year-old ca

26、n do it easily,但是 如果你要求兒童畫(huà)出but then you ask him to draw it從模型另一邊看過(guò)去的樣子as it would appear from the other side兒童就會(huì)覺(jué)得非常困難and children find this extraordinarily difficult.他們很難從他人的角度出發(fā)來(lái)認(rèn)識(shí)世界they find it very difficult to grasp the world as another person might see it.皮亞杰在該發(fā)展階段中的另一個(gè)重大發(fā)現(xiàn)another significant

27、finding piaget had about this phase of development就是守恒concerns whats called conservation.守恒是指物體某方面的特征the notion of conservation is that theres ways to transform things不會(huì)因?yàn)槠渌矫嫣卣鞯母淖僺uch that some aspects of them change而有所改變but others remain the same.比如說(shuō) 你有一杯水so, for instance, if you take a glass of w

28、ater將水倒進(jìn)另一個(gè)更淺或者更深的杯子里and you pour it into another glass thats shallow or tall,含水量并未發(fā)生任何改變it wont change the amount of water you have.如果你把一卷硬幣全部攤開(kāi)if you take a bunch of pennies and you spread them out,你不會(huì)得到更多的硬幣you dont get more pennies.但皮亞杰認(rèn)為兒童并不知道會(huì)這樣but kids, according to piaget,dont know that這個(gè)概念是

29、非常精彩的證據(jù)之一and this is one of the real cool demonstrations.如果你身邊有四五歲大的孩子any of you who have access to a four- or five-year-old,兄弟姐妹什么的a sibling or something-一定要先得到同意再去試驗(yàn)do not take one without permission,如果你身邊有四五歲大的孩子but if you have access to a four- or five-year-old你可以自己去試試you can do this yourself.情況

30、大體上會(huì)是這樣的this is what it looks like.第一段影片沒(méi)有聲音the first one has no sound.第二段影片的最后會(huì)有些聲音the second one is going to be sound thats going to come on at the end.這里有兩排方格but theres two rows of checkers.她問(wèn)兒童哪一排更多she asks the kid which one has more.兒童說(shuō)一樣多the kid says theyre the same.然后她問(wèn) 現(xiàn)在哪一排更多then she says-n

31、ow she asks him which one has more,這個(gè)還是那個(gè) 這孩子真笨that or that. so thats really stupid.兒童會(huì)這樣做 這是個(gè)令人驚奇的發(fā)現(xiàn)and its an amazing finding kids will do that.也是個(gè)生動(dòng)的發(fā)現(xiàn)and its a robust finding.這是另一個(gè)例子heres another example.它們其實(shí)是一樣的 so, theyre the same.這是該階段的一個(gè)重要發(fā)現(xiàn)so, its a cool finding of that stage,表明兒童在考慮和理解世界的方

32、式上suggesting a limitation in how you deal存在著局限性and make sense of the world.下一階段 具體運(yùn)算階段the next phase, concrete operations,七到十二歲 兒童可以解決守恒問(wèn)題from seven to twelve, you can solve the conservation problem,但兒童的抽象推理能力仍然有限but still youre limited to the extent youre capable of abstract reasoning.因此 對(duì)于無(wú)限這個(gè)數(shù)學(xué)概念

33、so the mathematical notions of infinity or或者是 像邏輯蘊(yùn)涵這樣的邏輯概念logical notions like logical entailment超出了該年齡階段兒童的理解范圍are beyond a child of this age.雖然此時(shí)的兒童有能力進(jìn)行一些邏輯思考the child is able to do a lot,但他們的思維在某種程度上but still its to some extent仍然是局限于具體情境的stuck in the concrete world.最后 大約在十二歲的時(shí)候and then finally,

34、at around age twelve,兒童的抽象推理和科學(xué)推理能力得以完善you could get abstract and scientific reasoning.這就是皮亞杰理論的大體內(nèi)容and this is the piagetian theory in very brief form.皮亞杰要比弗洛伊德或是斯金納成功很多now, piaget fared a lot better than did freud or skinner原因有以下幾點(diǎn)for several reasons.一個(gè)原因是 這些是關(guān)于兒童發(fā)展的one reason is these are interes

35、ting and falsifiable claims有趣且可證偽的論斷about child development.關(guān)于不同年齡階段的兒童so claims that-about the failure of conservation缺乏守恒概念的論斷in children at different ages能夠很輕易的得到系統(tǒng)的檢驗(yàn)could be easily tested and systematically tested,事實(shí)上 有相當(dāng)多的證據(jù)支持這些論斷and in fact, theres a lot of support for them.通過(guò)將各種觀察結(jié)果piaget ha

36、d a rich theoretical framework,以不同的方式組合在一起pulling together all sorts of observations皮亞杰的理論內(nèi)容變得十分豐富in different ways,他寫(xiě)了大量的書(shū)籍和論文wrote many, many books and articles豐富了他的理論and articulated his theory very richly.我認(rèn)為 最重要的是他令人震驚的發(fā)現(xiàn)and most of all, i think, he had some really striking findings.在皮亞杰之前 沒(méi)有人注意

37、到守恒before piaget, nobody noticed these conservation findings.在皮亞杰之前before piaget,并沒(méi)有人注意到嬰兒在追蹤和理解客體上nobody noticed that babies had this problem存在著守恒的問(wèn)題tracking and understanding objects.然而 與此同時(shí)at the same time, however,皮亞杰的理論也有其局限之處there are limitations in piagets theory.有些局限是理論上的some of these limita

38、tions are theoretical.問(wèn)題是its an interesting question他是否真的解釋了as to whether he really explains兒童思維是如何從具體向抽象轉(zhuǎn)變的how a child goes from a concrete thinker to an abstract thinker,或是真的解釋了or how he goes from not having object permanence兒童的客體永存性概念是如何從無(wú)到有的to understanding object permanence.還有些研究方法上的局限theres me

39、thodological limitations.皮亞杰非常熱衷用問(wèn)與答的方法進(jìn)行研究piaget was really big into question and answer,但這里存在的一個(gè)問(wèn)題便是but one problem with this is兒童并未能完全掌握語(yǔ)言that children arent very good with language,這可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致你低估他們的理解能力and this might lead you to underestimate how much they know.往往兒童越小 這個(gè)問(wèn)題就越明顯and this is particularly

40、 a problem the younger you get.在討論包括心理學(xué)在內(nèi)的任何科學(xué)時(shí)methodology is going to loom heavy研究方法是個(gè)重要的方面in the discussion of any science and that includes psychology.研究中90%的內(nèi)容通常都是在尋找often 90% of the game is discovering a clever method一種能夠檢驗(yàn)假說(shuō)的精巧方法through which to test your hypotheses.我們會(huì)談?wù)勁c嬰兒有關(guān)的研究方法were going t

41、o talk a little bit about that regarding babies.我給大家再舉一個(gè)不同方面的例子ill give you another example from a very different domain.很多科學(xué)家對(duì)研究撓癢癢非常感興趣there was a set of scientists interested in studying tickling.在什么情況下so, when you tickle somebody,你撓別人癢癢 他們會(huì)發(fā)笑under what circumstances will they laugh?要撓哪里才行 你撓自己會(huì)感

42、到癢嗎where do you have to tickle them? can you tickle yourself?需要出其不意嗎 等等does it have to be a surprise, and so on?事實(shí)證明 很難對(duì)此進(jìn)行實(shí)驗(yàn)室研究it turns out very difficult to study this in a lab.你又不能靠傻笑來(lái)得到你的實(shí)驗(yàn)學(xué)分youre not going to have your experimental credit.你走進(jìn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室說(shuō)you come into the lab and say,我是研究生 然后傻笑okay. im

43、the graduate student. ha, ha, ha.實(shí)際上and in fact,賓夕法尼亞大學(xué)的亨利葛雷曼an example of a methodological attempt was done曾經(jīng)進(jìn)行過(guò)研究方法上的嘗試by henry gleitman at university of pennsylvania,他發(fā)明了一臺(tái)撓癢癢的機(jī)器who built a tickle machine,這是一個(gè)裝有兩只大手的箱子which was this box雙手會(huì)不停的去撓癢癢with these two giant hands that went r-r-r-r.這是一個(gè)失敗

44、的發(fā)明this was a failure因?yàn)槿藗冞€沒(méi)靠近撓癢癢的機(jī)器because people could not go near the tickle machine就已經(jīng)被它的模樣逗笑了without convulsing in laughter.我們會(huì)在講到關(guān)于笑的課程時(shí)but we will discuss再來(lái)討論這個(gè)關(guān)于撓癢癢的科學(xué)when we have a lecture on laughter a bit of the tickle sciences.最后是證據(jù)上的局限and finally theres factual.嬰幼兒究竟知道些什么what do infants

45、and children really know?皮亞杰很可能由于研究方法上的局限its possible that due to the methodological limitations of piaget,而系統(tǒng)地低估了嬰幼兒的理解能力he systematically underestimated what children and babies know.事實(shí)上 我要給大家呈現(xiàn)一些證據(jù)and in fact, ill present some evidence這些證據(jù)表明事實(shí)確實(shí)如此suggesting that this is in fact-that this is the c

46、ase.我要給大家介紹下so, i want to introduce you關(guān)于嬰兒認(rèn)知的現(xiàn)代科學(xué)發(fā)現(xiàn)to the modern science of infant cognition.嬰兒認(rèn)知已經(jīng)得到了多年的研究infant cognition has been something studied for a very long time.這些研究都基于某個(gè)觀點(diǎn)and there was a certain view這是一個(gè)在哲學(xué)和心理學(xué)領(lǐng)域中that has had behind it廣泛達(dá)成的共識(shí)a tremendous philosophical and psychological

47、consensus.這份洋蔥報(bào)的標(biāo)題總結(jié)出了這個(gè)共識(shí)and its summarized in this onion headline here.那就是 嬰兒是愚笨的and the idea is that babies are stupid,嬰兒對(duì)世界一無(wú)所知that babies really dont know much about the world.洋蔥報(bào)的這個(gè)標(biāo)題很是諷刺now, the work that this onion headline is satirizing接下來(lái)我要來(lái)講一下最近的研究is the recent studies, which im going to

48、talk about,與此標(biāo)題相反suggested that on the contrary,最新的研究表明babies might be smarter嬰兒可能比你想象中更加聰明than you think.要想探究嬰兒的智力and to discover the intelligence of babies我們就必須足夠聰明we have to ourselves be pretty smart發(fā)明出不同的研究技術(shù)in developing different techniques.你不能用提問(wèn)的方式to study what a baby knows,去研究嬰兒知道些什么you can

49、t ask your questions.因?yàn)閶雰翰粫?huì)說(shuō)話babies cant talk.你可以觀察嬰兒you could look at what it does但嬰兒不怎么配合but babies are not very coordinated或者說(shuō)他們的言語(yǔ)技能并不熟練or skilled所以你必須要用精巧的方法才能做到so you need to use clever methods.一種聰明的方法便是去觀察腦電波one clever method is to look at their brain waves.右邊的這個(gè)孩子在測(cè)試時(shí)死掉了this child on the rig

50、ht died during testing.是個(gè)悲劇 被電極的重量給壓死了it was a tragic-it was crushed by the weights of the electrodes.他臨死還是挺高興的hes happy though.你可以去研究他們的腦電波you could study their brain waves.吮吸奶嘴是嬰兒能夠做到的one of the few things babies can do為數(shù)不多的事情之一is they could suck on a pacifier.你也許會(huì)想and you might think,你能從嬰兒的行為中知道些

51、什么呢well, how could you learn anything from that?舉例來(lái)說(shuō)well, for instance,你可以制造一個(gè)機(jī)器you could build machines每當(dāng)嬰兒吮吸奶嘴that when babies suck on a pacifier他們就會(huì)聽(tīng)到音樂(lè)或是話語(yǔ)they hear music or they hear language,然后你可通過(guò)觀察嬰兒有多喜歡吮吸奶嘴and then you could look at how much they suck on the pacifier來(lái)確定他們喜歡音樂(lè)還是話語(yǔ)to determin

52、e what they like.但不可否認(rèn)的是but undeniably我們所擁有的絕大多數(shù)關(guān)于嬰兒的知識(shí)we know most of our - we got most of our knowledge about babies都來(lái)自于對(duì)嬰兒注視次數(shù)的研究from studies of their looking times.這是嬰兒們能夠做到的一件事thats one thing babies can do.他們能夠注視某物they can look.這里是一張伊麗莎白斯皮克的照片and i have up here-this is a picture of elizabeth sp

53、elke,她是一個(gè)發(fā)展心理學(xué)家who is a developmental psychologist在嬰兒注視次數(shù)whos developed the most research on looking at babies looking times及其意義方面研究頗多and what you could learn from them.你可以通過(guò)兩種方法and i have here two ways從注視這個(gè)動(dòng)作中得出一些結(jié)論you could learn from looking.一種方法便是呈現(xiàn)one is preference.比如說(shuō) 假設(shè)你沒(méi)來(lái)由的想知道so for instance

54、, suppose you want to know, for whatever reason,嬰兒會(huì)喜歡狗的模樣還是貓的摸樣do babies like the looks of dogs or cats?你可以抱來(lái)一個(gè)嬰兒well, you could put a baby down,在這里呈現(xiàn)一張狗的照片have a picture of a dog here,在這里呈現(xiàn)一張貓的照片a picture of a cat here,然后觀察嬰兒會(huì)看哪一張照片and see which one the baby looks at.你可以從嬰兒移動(dòng)的眼珠中找到答案babies can move

55、 their eyes and that could tell you something.嬰兒能區(qū)分出漂亮和丑陋的臉龐嗎do babies distinguish pretty faces from ugly faces?在這邊放一張漂亮的臉龐well, put a pretty face here,在這邊放一張丑陋的臉龐an ugly face here,觀察嬰兒是否更喜歡注視漂亮的那個(gè)see if the baby prefers to look at the pretty one.你也可以通過(guò)習(xí)慣化和驚奇來(lái)進(jìn)行探究you could also do habituation and su

56、rprise.我在隨后提到的各種研究and much of the studies im going to talk about here很多都會(huì)涉及到習(xí)慣化和驚奇involve habituation and surprise.習(xí)慣化是厭倦這個(gè)詞的一種華麗表達(dá)habituation is a fancy word for boredom.向嬰兒反復(fù)呈現(xiàn)某物what you do is you show a baby something over and over again.根據(jù)行為主義now, remember from behaviorism嬰兒會(huì)覺(jué)得這東西沒(méi)什么意思the baby will learn this isnt very interesting.這時(shí)你向嬰兒呈現(xiàn)某個(gè)不同的物體then you show the baby something different.如果嬰兒認(rèn)為此物與之前出現(xiàn)物體不同if the baby really sees it as different,嬰兒的注視時(shí)間會(huì)變長(zhǎng)the baby will look longer,你可以將注視時(shí)間變長(zhǎng)and you could use that視為嬰兒發(fā)現(xiàn)物體間區(qū)別的一種標(biāo)志as a measure of what babies find di