外文翻譯及原文族群與集群競爭力

1、 英文文獻資料（一）clusters and the new economics of competitionmichael e. porter（harvard university）why clusters are critical to competition modern competition depends on productivity, not on access to inputs or the scale of individual enterprises.productivity rests on how companies compete,not on the parti

2、cular fields they compete in.companies can be highly productive in any industry shoes, agriculture, or semiconductors if they employ sophisticated methods, use advanced technology,and offer unique products and services. all industries can employ advanced technology; all industries can be knowledge i

3、ntensive. the sophistication with which companies compete in a particular location, however, is strongly influenced by the quality of the local business environment.1 companies cannot employ advanced logistical techniques, for example, without a high quality transportation infrastructure. nor can co

4、mpanies effectively compete on sophisticated service without well-educated employees. businesses cannot operate efficiently under onerous regulatory red tape or under a court system that fails to resolve disputes quickly and fairly. some aspects of the business environment, such as the legal system,

5、 for example, or corporate tax rates, affect all industries. in advanced economies, however, the more decisive aspects of the business environment are often cluster specific; these constitute some of the most important microeconomic foundations for competition. clusters affect competition in three b

6、road ways:first, by increasing the productivity of companies based in the area; second, by driving the direction and pace of innovation, which underpins future productivity growth; and third, by stimulating the formation of new businesses, which expands and strengthens the cluster itself. a cluster

7、allows each member to benefit as if it had greater scale or as if it had joined with others formally without requiring it to sacrifice its flexibility.clusters and productivity. being part of a cluster allows companies to operate more productively in sourcing inputs; accessing information, technolog

8、y,and needed institutions; coordinating with related companies; and measuring and motivating improvement. better access to employees and suppliers. companies in vibrant clusters can tap into an existing pool of specialized and experienced employees, thereby lowering their search and transaction cost

9、s in recruiting. because a cluster signals opportunity and reduces the risk of relocation for employees, it can also be easier to attract talented people from other locations, a decisive advantage in some industries. a well-developed cluster also provides an efficient means of obtaining other import

10、ant inputs.such a cluster offers a deep and specialized supplier base. sourcing locally instead of from distant suppliers lowers transaction costs. it minimizes the need for inventory, eliminates importing costs and delays, and because local reputation is important lowers the risk that suppliers wil

11、l overprice or renege on commitments. proximity improves communications and makes it easier for suppliers to provide ancillary or support services such as installation and debugging. other things being equal, then, local outsourcing is a better solution than distant outsourcing, especially for advan

12、ced and specialized inputs involving embedded technology, information, and service content. formal alliances with distant suppliers can mitigate some of the disadvantages of distant outsourcing. but all formal alliances involve their own complex bargaining and governance problems and can inhibit a c

13、ompanys flexibility. the close, informal relationships possible among companies in a cluster are often a superior arrangement. in many cases, clusters are also a better alternative to vertical integration.compared with in-house units, outside specialists are often more cost effective and responsive,

14、 not only in component production but also in services such as training. although extensive vertical integration may have once been the norm, a fast-changing environment can render vertical integration inefficient, ineffective, and inflexible. even when some inputs are best sourced from a distance,

15、clusters offer advantages. suppliers trying to penetrate a large, concentrated market will price more aggressively, knowing that as they do so they can realize efficiencies in marketing and in service. working against a clusters advantages in assembling resources is the possibility that competition

16、will render them more expensive and scarce. but companies do have the alternative of outsourcing many inputs from other locations, which tends to limit potential cost penalties. more important, clusters increase not only the demand for specialized inputs but also their supply. access to specialized

17、information. extensive market, technical, and competitive information accumulates within a cluster, and members have preferred access to it. in addition, personal relationships and community ties foster trust and facilitate the flow of information. these conditions make information more transferable

18、. complementarities. a host of linkages among cluster members results in a whole greater than the sum of its parts. in a typical tourism cluster, for example, the quality of a visitors experience depends not only on the appeal of the primary attraction but also on the quality and efficiency of compl

19、ementary businesses such as hotels, restaurants, shopping outlets, and transportation facilities. because members of the cluster are mutually dependent, good performance by one can boost the success of the others. complementarities come in many forms. the most obvious is when products complement one

20、 another in meeting customers needs, as the tourism example illustrates. another form is the coordination of activities across companies to optimize their collective productivity. in wood products, for instance, the efficiency of sawmills depends on a reliable supply of high-quality timber and the a

21、bility to put all the timber to use in furniture (highest quality), pallets and boxes (lower quality), or wood chips (lowest quality). in the early 1990s, portuguese sawmills suffered from poor timber quality because local landowners did not invest in timber management. hence most timber was process

22、ed for use in pallets and boxes, a lower-value use that limited the price paid to landowners. substantial improvement in productivity was possible, but only if several parts of the cluster changed simultaneously. logging operations, for example, had to modify cutting and sorting procedures, while sa

23、wmills had to develop the capacity to process wood in more sophisticated ways. coordination to develop standard wood classifications and measures was an important enabling step. geographically dispersed companies are less likely to recognize and capture such linkages. other complementarities arise i

24、n marketing. a cluster frequently enhances the reputation of a location in a particular field, making it more likely that buyers will turn to a vendor based there. italys strong reputation for fashion and design, for example, benefits companies involved in leather goods, footwear, apparel, and acces

25、sories. beyond reputation, cluster members often profit from a variety of joint marketing mechanisms, such as company referrals, trade fairs, trade magazines, and marketing delegations. finally, complementarities can make buying from a cluster more attractive for customers. visiting buyers can see m

26、any vendors in a single trip. they also may perceive their buying risk to be lower because one location provides alternative suppliers. that allows them to multisource or to switch vendors if the need arises. hong kong thrives as a source of fashion apparel in part for this reason. access to institu

27、tions and public goods. investments made by government or other public institutions such as public spending for specialized infrastructure or educational programs can enhance a companys productivity. the ability to recruit employees trained at local programs, for example, lowers the cost of internal

28、 training. other quasi-public goods, such as the clusters information and technology pools and its reputation, arise as natural by-products of competition. it is not just governments that create public goods that enhance productivity in the private sector. investments by companies in training progra

29、ms, infrastructure, quality centers, testing laboratories, and so on also contribute to increased productivity. such private investments are often made collectively because cluster participants recognize the potential for collective benefits. better motivation and measurement. local rivalry is highl

30、y motivating. peer pressure amplifies competitive pressure within a cluster,even among noncompeting or indirectly competing companies. pride and the desire to look good in the local community spur executives to attempt to outdo one another. clusters also often make it easier to measure and compare p

31、erformances because local rivals share general circumstances for example, labor costs and local market access and they perform similar activities. companies within clusters typically have intimate knowledge of their suppliers costs. managers are able to compare costs and employees performance with o

32、ther local companies. additionally, financial institutions can accumulate knowledge about the cluster that can be used to monitor performance.clusters and innovation. in addition to enhancing productivity, clusters play a vital role in a companys ongoing ability to innovate. some of the same charact

33、eristics that enhance current productivity have an even more dramatic effect on innovation and productivity growth. because sophisticated buyers are often part of a cluster, companies inside clusters usually have a better window on the market than isolated competitors do. computer companies based in

34、 silicon valley and austin, texas, for example, plug into customer needs and trends with a speed difficult to match by companies located elsewhere. the ongoing relationships with other entities within the cluster also help companies to learn early about evolving technology, component and machinery a

35、vailability, service and marketing concepts, and so on. such learning is facilitated by the ease of making site visits and frequent face-to-face contact.clusters do more than make opportunities for innovation more visible. they also provide the capacity and the flexibility to act rapidly. a company

36、within a cluster often can source what it needs to implement innovations more quickly. local suppliers and partners can and do get closely involved in the innovation process, thus ensuring a better match with customers requirements. companies within a cluster can experiment at lower cost and can del

37、ay large commitments until they are more assured that a given innovation will pan out. in contrast, a company relying on distant suppliers faces greater challenges in every activity it coordinates with other organizations in contracting, for example, or securing delivery or obtaining associated tech

38、nical and service support. innovation can be even harder in vertically integrated companies, especially in those that face difficult trade-offs if the innovation erodes the value of in-house assets or if current products or processes must be maintained while new ones are developed.reinforcing the ot

39、her advantages for innovation is the sheer pressure competitive pressure, peer pressure, constant comparison that occurs in a cluster. executives vie with one another to set their companies apart. for all these reasons, clusters can remain centers of innovation for decades.clusters and new business

40、formation. it is not surprising, then, that many new companies grow up within an existing cluster rather than at isolated locations. new suppliers, for example, proliferate within a cluster because a concentrated customer base lowers their risks and makes it easier for them to spot market opportunit

41、ies. moreover, because developed clusters comprise related industries that normally draw on common or very similar inputs, suppliers enjoy expanded opportunities. clusters are conducive to new business formation for a variety of reasons. individuals working within a cluster can more easily perceive

42、gaps in products or services around which they can build businesses. beyond that, barriers to entry are lower than elsewhere. needed assets, skills, inputs, and staff are often readily available at the cluster location, waiting to be assembled into a new enterprise. local financial institutions and

43、investors, already familiar with the cluster, may require a lower risk premium on capital. in addition, the cluster often presents a significant local market, and an entrepreneur may benefit from established relationships. all of these factors reduce the perceived risks of entry and of exit, should

44、the enterprise fail. the formation of new businesses within a cluster is part of a positive feedback loop. an expanded cluster amplifies all the benefits i have described it increases the collective pool of competitive resources, which benefits all the clusters members. the net result is that compan

45、ies in the cluster advance relative to rivals at other locations. 英文文獻中文翻譯（二）來源：哈佛商業(yè)評論vol.76第6期 1998年作者：邁克e. 波特出版時間：1998 簇群與新競爭經(jīng)濟學 (美）邁克e. 波特為什么簇群對競爭至關(guān)重要? 現(xiàn)代競爭取決于生產(chǎn)力, 而非取決于投入或單個企業(yè)的規(guī)模。生產(chǎn)力取決于公司如何競爭, 而非它們在何領(lǐng)域競爭。如果公司運用熟練的方法和先進的技術(shù), 提供獨特的產(chǎn)品和服務,那任何產(chǎn)業(yè)，鞋業(yè)、農(nóng)業(yè)或半導體產(chǎn)業(yè)都能產(chǎn)生較高的生產(chǎn)力。所有產(chǎn)業(yè)都能夠運用先進的技術(shù);所有產(chǎn)業(yè)都能成為知識密集型產(chǎn)業(yè)。 然而

46、, 公司在某一特定的地理位置進行競爭的復雜程度受當?shù)厣虡I(yè)環(huán)境質(zhì)量的影響極大。例如,如果缺乏高質(zhì)量的交通運輸基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施,公司就無法使用先進的后勤技術(shù)。同樣,如果沒有受過良好教育的雇員, 公司也無法在成熟的服務業(yè)中進行有效的競爭。企業(yè)無法在繁雜的管制性紅頭文件或一個不能迅速、公平地解決爭端的法院體系下進行有效的競爭。商業(yè)環(huán)境的某些方面, 例如法律制度或公司稅率, 也會影響所有產(chǎn)業(yè)。在發(fā)達的國家中, 商業(yè)環(huán)境中起決定性作用的方面通常是簇群所特有的,這為競爭打下了最重要的微觀經(jīng)濟基礎(chǔ)。簇群通過三種方式影響競爭:首先,通過增強以該領(lǐng)域為立足點的公司的生產(chǎn)力來施加影響; 其次,通過推動創(chuàng)新的方向和步伐,為未

47、來生產(chǎn)力的增長奠定堅實的基礎(chǔ); 再次,通過鼓勵新企業(yè)的形成,擴大并增強簇群本身來影響競爭。每個簇群總能使其每個成員受益,仿佛它擁有更大的規(guī)?；蛞雅c其他簇群正式地聯(lián)合在一起而并不要求它犧牲自身的靈活性。 簇群與生產(chǎn)力 成為簇群的一部分將使得公司在尋求投入、獲得信息技術(shù)及所要的制度、協(xié)調(diào)相關(guān)公司和促進改善等方面運作起來更加有效。 獲取雇員和供應商的更好途徑。在有活力的簇群內(nèi)公司可以利用現(xiàn)有的各種專業(yè)化、有經(jīng)驗的雇員, 從而降低他們在招聘過程中的搜索成本和交易成本。因為每一個大簇群意味著有更多的機會,減少重新安置雇員的風險。它還易于從其他地區(qū)吸引人才,從某些產(chǎn)業(yè)中攫取起決定性作用的優(yōu)勢。 一個發(fā)展狀

48、況良好的簇群為獲取其它重要的投入要素提供了一條有效的途徑。它提供了一個深層次、專業(yè)化的供應商基地。就地取材而不是從遙遠的供應商那里獲取資源,可以降低交易成本。這有助于把存貨需求降低到最小程度, 同時也有助于減少進口成本以及避免生產(chǎn)延誤。而且本地聲譽可以起到重要作用,它有助于降低供應商抬高價格或違約的風險。地理位置的相近性有利于改善通訊聯(lián)絡(luò)、有利于供應商提供輔助性服務, 諸如安裝、排除故障之類的服務。然而, 如果其他條件相同, 就地取材比從遠處取材更為方便快捷, 尤其是對于那些涉及內(nèi)在信息、技術(shù)和服務滿意度等先進性、專業(yè)化的投入要素來說更是如此。 與外地供應商正式結(jié)盟,可以緩解從外地獲取資源的許

49、多劣勢。但是,所有正式的聯(lián)盟都將涉及他們各自復雜的議價問題和管理問題,從而限制了公司的靈活性和機動性。所以,簇群內(nèi)部各公司之間親密而又非正式的關(guān)系通常是較優(yōu)的選擇。 在許多案例中,簇群是取代垂直一體化的更好選擇。與內(nèi)設(shè)單位相比,外部的專家在部件生產(chǎn)和諸如培訓等服務方面, 通常更具有成本效益和責任心。雖然廣泛的垂直一體化曾經(jīng)是我們的追求目標,但是,瞬息萬變的外部環(huán)境可能使垂直一體化缺乏效率、效能和靈活性。 即使某些投入要素最好從遠地獲取, 簇群也仍然可以提供某些優(yōu)勢。那些致力于滲入一個廣闊而又集中的市場的供應商們, 將會使其定價更具競爭性, 因為他們知道, 他們的這一做法能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)營銷和服務的高效

50、率。 如果資源配置違背簇群優(yōu)勢,競爭就可能導致配置代價更高和資源的短缺。但是,公司也可以從其他地區(qū)外購能減少成本損失的各種生產(chǎn)要素。更重要的是, 簇群不僅增加了對專門化投入要素的需求,而且還他們的供給。 獲取專業(yè)化信息的途徑。簇群內(nèi)廣泛積累了市場、技術(shù)和競爭的信息,簇群成員優(yōu)先獲取了這些信息。另外,個人關(guān)系和社會聯(lián)結(jié)能培育信任,促進信息的傳遞。所有上述條件都有利于信息的傳播。 互補性。一個簇群的成員之間廣泛聯(lián)結(jié)而產(chǎn)生的總體力量大于其各部分之和。以一個典型的旅游簇群為例。觀光旅游者的旅游質(zhì)量不僅取決于景觀引人入勝的程度, 還有賴于互補性商業(yè)活動, 如旅館、餐館、商店和交通設(shè)施的質(zhì)量和效率。因為簇

51、群內(nèi)各個成員是相互依賴的,某個成員的優(yōu)質(zhì)服務將促進其他成員的成功。 互補性表現(xiàn)形式眾多。正如上述旅游簇群說明的那樣, 最為明顯的一種形式是許多產(chǎn)品在滿足顧客的需求方面相互補充。另外一種表現(xiàn)形式是, 公司之間的相互協(xié)調(diào)可以使他們的集體生產(chǎn)能力得到進一步完善。以木制產(chǎn)品為例, 鋸木廠的效率有賴于高質(zhì)量木料的供應以及所有木材得到充分利用的能力。在20 世紀90 年代初期,葡萄牙鋸木廠因木材質(zhì)量差而遭受巨大損失。這是由于當?shù)赝恋厮姓邲]有投資于木材管理所致。從而,大多數(shù)木材被加工成貨盤和木箱, 這種低價值的使用限制了供給的價格。大量改進生產(chǎn)力是有可能的, 但前提條件是, 簇群內(nèi)的其他一些成員應同時改變

52、經(jīng)營方式。例如, 伐木廠必須改變砍伐和分類程序, 并以更復雜的方式發(fā)展其加工木材的能力。共同協(xié)作以發(fā)展標準化的木材分類法和測量法是一個非常重要而又切實可行的環(huán)節(jié)。然而,在地理位置上處于分散的公司,極少認識到這種聯(lián)結(jié)的重要性,也極少能利用這種聯(lián)結(jié)的好處。 其他互補性形式可能會出現(xiàn)于市場營銷中。每個簇群總是在持續(xù)不斷地提高其在某個地區(qū)特定領(lǐng)域的聲譽。這一行為使得買者轉(zhuǎn)向賣者聚居地的可能性更大。例如,意大利在服裝與設(shè)計方面享有良好的聲譽, 這些聲譽使那些涉及皮毛商品、鞋類、衣服飾品等方面的生產(chǎn)公司受益匪淺。除聲譽外, 簇群成員還經(jīng)常能從大量的營銷機制中獲益, 例如, 公司分派貿(mào)易展覽會、貿(mào)易雜志、營銷代表團等。 最后,互補性使客戶傾向于購買簇群的東西。在單一的旅行中,觀光旅游者可以看到很多賣主(即提供旅游服務的公司) , 他們同樣會察覺到購買風險降低了。這是因為一個地區(qū)內(nèi)有眾多的供應商可供他們選擇, 所