歷史的計(jì)算外文翻譯

1、history of computingmain article: history of computing hardwarethe first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a person who carried out calculations, or computations, and the word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. from the end of

2、the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. limited-function early computersthe jacquard loom, on display at the museum of science and industry in manchester, england, was one of the first programmable devices.the history of the mode

3、rn computer begins with two separate technologies, automated calculation and programmability, but no single device can be identified as the earliest computer, partly because of the inconsistent application of that term. a few devices are worth mentioning though, like some mechanical aids to computin

4、g, which were very successful and survived for centuries until the advent of the electronic calculator, like the sumerian abacus, designed around 2500 bc of which a descendant won a speed competition against a modern desk calculating machine in japan in 1946, the slide rules, invented in the 1620s,

5、which were carried on five apollo space missions, including to the moon and arguably the astrolabe and the antikythera mechanism, an ancient astronomical computer built by the greeks around 80 bc. the greek mathematician hero of alexandria (c. 1070 ad) built a mechanical theater which performed a pl

6、ay lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that might be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when. this is the essence of programmability.around the end of the 10th century, the french monk gerbert d'aur

7、illac brought back from spain the drawings of a machine invented by the moors that answered either yes or no to the questions it was asked. again in the 13th century, the monks albertus magnus and roger bacon built talking androids without any further development.in 1642, the renaissance saw the inv

8、ention of the mechanical calculator, a device that could perform all four arithmetic operations without relying on human intelligence. the mechanical calculator was at the root of the development of computers in two separate ways. initially, it was in trying to develop more powerful and more flexibl

9、e calculators that the computer was first theorized by charles babbage and then developed. secondly, development of a low-cost electronic calculator, successor to the mechanical calculator, resulted in the development by intel of the first commercially available microprocessor integrated circuit.fir

10、st general-purpose computersin 1801, joseph marie jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom by introducing a series of punched paper cards as a template which allowed his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. the resulting jacquard loom was an important step in the development of co

11、mputers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit limited, form of programmability.in 1837, charles babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer, his analytical engine. limited finances and babbage's

12、inability to resist tinkering with the design meant that the device was never completed ; nevertheless his son, henry babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. he gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906. t

13、his machine was given to the science museum in south kensington in 1910.in the late 1880s, herman hollerith invented the recording of data on a machine-readable medium. earlier uses of machine-readable media had been for control, not data. "after some initial trials with paper tape, he settled

14、on punched cards ." to process these punched cards he invented the tabulator, and the keypunch machines. these three inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry. large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the 1890 united states cens

15、us by hollerith's company, which later became the core of ibm. by the end of the 19th century a number of ideas and technologies, that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers, had begun to appear: boolean algebra, the vacuum tube (thermionic valve), punched cards and t

16、ape, and the teleprinter.during the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. however, these were not programmable and generall

17、y lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.alan turing is widely regarded as the father of modern computer science. in 1936 turing provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the turing machine, providing a blueprint for the elect

18、ronic digital computer. of his role in the creation of the modern computer, time magazine in naming turing one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century, states: "the fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working o

19、n an incarnation of a turing machine". edsac was one of the first computers to implement the stored-program (von neumann) architecture.die of an intel 80486dx2 microprocessor (actual size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging.the atanasoffberry computer (abc) was the world's first electronic d

20、igital computer, albeit not programmable. atanasoff is considered to be one of the fathers of the computer.conceived in 1937 by iowa state college physics professor john atanasoff, and built with the assistance of graduate student clifford berry, the machine was not programmable, being designed only

21、 to solve systems of linear equations. the computer did employ parallel computation. a 1973 court ruling in a patent dispute found that the patent for the 1946 eniac computer derived from the atanasoffberry computer.the first program-controlled computer was invented by konrad zuse, who built the z3,

22、 an electromechanical computing machine, in 1941. the first programmable electronic computer was the colossus, built in 1943 by tommy flowers.george stibitz is internationally recognized as a father of the modern digital computer. while working at bell labs in november 1937, stibitz invented and bui

23、lt a relay-based calculator he dubbed the "model k" (for "kitchen table", on which he had assembled it), which was the first to use binary circuits to perform an arithmetic operation. later models added greater sophistication including complex arithmetic and programmability. a su

24、ccession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key features that are seen in modern computers. the use of digital electronics (largely invented by claude shannon in 1937) and more flexible programmability were vitally i

25、mportant steps, but defining one point along this road as "the first digital electronic computer" is difficult. notable achievements include. konrad zuse's electromechanical "z machines". the z3 (1941) was the first working machine featuring binary arithmetic, including float

26、ing point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. in 1998 the z3 was proved to be turing complete, therefore being the world's first operational computer.the non-programmable atanasoffberry computer (commenced in 1937, completed in 1941) which used vacuum tube based computation, binary numb

27、ers, and regenerative capacitor memory. the use of regenerative memory allowed it to be much more compact than its peers (being approximately the size of a large desk or workbench), since intermediate results could be stored and then fed back into the same set of computation elements.the secret brit

28、ish colossus computers (1943), which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable. it was used for breaking german wartime codes.the harvard mark i (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer w

29、ith limited programmability.the u.s. army's ballistic research laboratory eniac (1946), which used decimal arithmetic and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since konrad zuse's z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). initially, however, eniac h

30、ad an inflexible architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its programming.stored-program architecturereplica of the small-scale experimental machine (ssem), the world's first stored-program computer, at the museum of science and industry in manchester, englandseveral developers

31、 of eniac, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which came to be known as the "stored-program architecture" or von neumann architecture. this design was first formally described by john von neumann in the paper first draft of a report on the edvac, di

32、stributed in 1945. a number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture commenced around this time, the first of which was completed in 1948 at the university of manchester in england, the manchester small-scale experimental machine (ssem or "baby"). the elect

33、ronic delay storage automatic calculator (edsac), completed a year after the ssem at cambridge university, was the first practical, non-experimental implementation of the stored-program design and was put to use immediately for research work at the university. shortly thereafter, the machine origina

34、lly described by von neumann's paperedvacwas completed but did not see full-time use for an additional two years.nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored-program architecture, making it the single trait by which the word "computer" is now defined. while the technol

35、ogies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the 1940s, most still use the von neumann architecture.beginning in the 1950s, soviet scientists sergei sobolev and nikolay brusentsov conducted research on ternary computers, devices that oper

36、ated on a base three numbering system of ?1, 0, and 1 rather than the conventional binary numbering system upon which most computers are based. they designed the setun, a functional ternary computer, at moscow state university. the device was put into limited production in the soviet union, but supp

37、lanted by the more common binary architecture.semiconductors and microprocessorscomputers using vacuum tubes as their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s, but by the 1960s had been largely replaced by semiconductor transistor-based machines, which were smaller, faster, cheaper to pr

38、oduce, required less power, and were more reliable. the first transistorised computer was demonstrated at the university of manchester in 1953. in the 1970s, integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation of microprocessors, such as the intel 4004, further decreased size and cost and furt

39、her increased speed and reliability of computers. by the late 1970s, many products such as video recorders contained dedicated computers called microcontrollers, and they started to appear as a replacement to mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines. the 1980s witnessed ho

40、me computers and the now ubiquitous personal computer. with the evolution of the internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household.modern smartphones are fully programmable computers in their own right, and as of 2009 may well be the most common

41、 form of such computers in existenc.歷史的計(jì)算主要文章:計(jì)算機(jī)硬件的歷史 在第一次使用“計(jì)算機(jī)”這個(gè)詞被記錄在1613年,指的是對一個(gè)人進(jìn)行了計(jì)算,或計(jì)算,與詞的意思相同,直到繼續(xù)20世紀(jì)中期。19世紀(jì)末開始其更熟悉的含義,一個(gè)機(jī)器進(jìn)行計(jì)算。limited-function早期計(jì)算機(jī) 雅卡爾的展覽上,在科學(xué)工業(yè)博物館在曼徹斯特,是英國最早的一種可編程設(shè)備。 現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)的歷史開始于兩個(gè)獨(dú)立的技術(shù),自動(dòng)計(jì)算和可編程,但沒有一種單一的設(shè)備可以看成是最早的電腦,部分的原因是由于不應(yīng)用那個(gè)術(shù)語。一些設(shè)備值得一提的是,雖然喜歡一些機(jī)械復(fù)制計(jì)算,很成功,并且存活了幾個(gè)世紀(jì)

42、,來臨的電子計(jì)算器,像蘇美爾算盤,大約在公元前2500年左右的設(shè)計(jì)贏得競爭的后代對現(xiàn)代書桌速度計(jì)算機(jī)器在1946年日本滑動(dòng)規(guī)則,起源于1620年代,進(jìn)行了五阿波羅太空機(jī)構(gòu),包括月球等機(jī)制,一個(gè)古老的天文計(jì)算機(jī)建造大約在公元前80年的希臘人。亞歷山大的希臘數(shù)學(xué)家的英雄(公元前10 -公元70年)建造了一個(gè)機(jī)械劇院演了一出劇的持續(xù)10分鐘的時(shí)間,是一個(gè)復(fù)雜的旋轉(zhuǎn)系統(tǒng)操作的繩索和桶,可能會(huì)被認(rèn)為是一種手段決定的哪個(gè)部位進(jìn)行行為和機(jī)理的時(shí)候。這是可編程的本質(zhì)。 十世紀(jì)末,法國僧侶帶回來斯韋二氏西班牙畫的機(jī)器發(fā)明的,要么摩爾人回答是或否的問題。在13世紀(jì),僧侶們albertus馬格努斯和羅杰·

43、培根說沒有任何建造機(jī)器人的進(jìn)一步發(fā)展。 1642年,文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的看見發(fā)明的機(jī)械計(jì)算器,一種裝置能完成所有的四個(gè)算術(shù)運(yùn)算，不用依賴人類的智力。機(jī)械計(jì)算器的根源是電腦的發(fā)展有兩種方式。最初,是在試圖發(fā)展更強(qiáng)大和更靈活的計(jì)算器,電腦是第一個(gè)被人們記得查爾斯·巴貝奇,然后理論發(fā)展。其次,開發(fā)的一種低成本的電子計(jì)算器繼任者、機(jī)械計(jì)算器,造成了發(fā)展的第一個(gè)商業(yè)化可用英特爾處理器集成電路。 第一次通用計(jì)算機(jī) 1801年,約瑟夫瑪麗做了一個(gè)改進(jìn)提花織機(jī)介紹紡織一系列打孔紙質(zhì)卡作為一個(gè)模板使織機(jī)編織自動(dòng)錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜的模式。結(jié)果提花機(jī)是一個(gè)重要的發(fā)展歷程中的電腦,因?yàn)槭褂么┛卓ㄆ瑏矶x編織模式可被看作是早

44、,雖然有限,可編程的形式。 1837年,查爾斯·巴巴奇是第一個(gè)構(gòu)思和設(shè)計(jì)一個(gè)完全可編程機(jī)械計(jì)算機(jī),他的分析引擎。有限的財(cái)政和巴巴奇未能抵抗擺弄設(shè)計(jì)意味著裝置是根本沒完成的;然而他的兒子,亨利·巴巴奇,完成了一個(gè)簡化版本的分析引擎的運(yùn)算單元(廠)于1888年。他給了一個(gè)成功的示范用于計(jì)算表于1906年。這臺(tái)機(jī)器是給科學(xué)博物館位于南肯辛頓于1910年。 在1880年代晚期,赫爾曼?；魻柸鹚拱l(fā)明了記錄的一種機(jī)器可以閱讀的數(shù)據(jù)中。機(jī)器的使用媒體早些時(shí)候被控制,沒有數(shù)據(jù)?！敖?jīng)過一段時(shí)間的試驗(yàn),他住在紙帶上穿孔卡片“處理這些穿孔卡片他發(fā)明了針孔制表機(jī)。這三個(gè)發(fā)明是基礎(chǔ)的現(xiàn)代信息加工業(yè)。

45、大型自動(dòng)化的數(shù)據(jù)處理進(jìn)行了穿孔卡片為1890年美國人口普查由霍勒里斯的公司,后來成為了ibm的核心。19世紀(jì)末大量的新技術(shù)、新思路,后來被證明是有用的計(jì)算機(jī)實(shí)現(xiàn)的實(shí)踐,已經(jīng)開始出現(xiàn):布爾代數(shù),真空管(計(jì)算機(jī)閥),穿孔卡片和磁帶,電傳打字機(jī)。 在20世紀(jì)初,許多科學(xué)計(jì)算需要受到了越來越復(fù)雜的模擬計(jì)算機(jī),它通過直接機(jī)械或電氣模型為基礎(chǔ)計(jì)算問題。然而,這不是編程,通常缺乏的通用性和準(zhǔn)確性的現(xiàn)代數(shù)字計(jì)算機(jī)。 阿蘭·圖靈就被廣泛認(rèn)為是現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)之父。在1936年提供了一個(gè)有影響力的正規(guī)化涂林的概念和計(jì)算方法與涂林機(jī)器,提供電子數(shù)字計(jì)算機(jī)的藍(lán)圖。他的角色在創(chuàng)作現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)的時(shí)候,時(shí)代雜志在20

46、世紀(jì)命名圖靈的100位最具影響力的人物之一,聲明:“事實(shí)是,每個(gè)人在一個(gè)鍵盤,打開水龍頭電子數(shù)據(jù)表或一個(gè)字處理程序,正在涂林的化身”。這zuse虛擬的某種知識(shí)世界,1941年,被認(rèn)為是世界上的第一個(gè)工作可編程、全自動(dòng)計(jì)算機(jī)器。edsac是其中第一個(gè)計(jì)算機(jī)來實(shí)現(xiàn)stored-program(馮。諾依曼)的建筑。 一個(gè)英特爾80486 dx2微處理器(實(shí)際尺寸:12×6.75毫米),在它的包裝。 atanasoff-berry的計(jì)算機(jī)(abc)是世界上最早的電子數(shù)字計(jì)算機(jī),但不可編程的。阿坦那索夫被認(rèn)為是其中一位電腦之父。它孕育于1937年由愛荷華州立大學(xué)物理學(xué)教授約翰?阿坦那索夫,修筑

47、協(xié)助研究生克利夫?貝瑞,機(jī)器沒有可編程的,只有解決系統(tǒng)在設(shè)計(jì)線性方程組。并采用計(jì)算機(jī)并行處理能力。1973年專利糾紛的法院判決書中發(fā)現(xiàn)的專利1946 eniac計(jì)算機(jī)來源于atanasoff-berry電腦。 第一個(gè)程控計(jì)算機(jī)發(fā)明的康拉德祖薩、誰建的虛擬的某種知識(shí)世界,機(jī)電一體化計(jì)算機(jī)器,在1941年。第一個(gè)可編程電子計(jì)算機(jī)是龐然大物,始建于1943年由湯米·花朵。 喬治是國際公認(rèn)的父親的現(xiàn)代數(shù)字計(jì)算機(jī)。在工作時(shí),在貝爾實(shí)驗(yàn)室在1937年11月,stibitz發(fā)明,搭建了一個(gè)基于繼電器的計(jì)算器他稱為“模型k”(“廚房桌子”,但他聚集它),這是第一個(gè)使用二進(jìn)制電路執(zhí)行算術(shù)運(yùn)算。最近的模