二元制的美國法律體系

1、二元制的美國法律體系Duality in the American Legal SystemThe American legal system features a complexity resulting from American federalism. Within the federal structure ， each state retains a substantial degree of autonomy. Each has its own constitution ， statutes made by its own legislature， and a body of ca

2、se lawcreated by its own courts. So it can be said that instead of one uniform set of laws America has fifty one a set of laws for each of the fifty states and one for the federation.A complication resulting from this duality ， or multiplicity， is that choice of law questionsfrequently arise in mult

3、istate transactions or occurrences if a dis？ pute arises out of a series ofactivities in different states ， or between citizens of different states， and the substantive rights atissue are defined differently in these states， thechoice of applicable law ， which is governed by different choice of law

4、rules of different states ， becomes a very complicated question.The trend toward uniform statutes has tended to reduce this complication， but conflicts of lawproblems still exist. So， in studying American lawstudents should be aware that different states may have different substantive laws and dif？

5、ferent choiceof law rules regarding a particular legal situation resulting in the possibility that the choice of forum may affect the substantive rights of the parties concerned.Choice of forum also adds to the complexity of litigation in America， because duality is alsopresent in Americas court sys

6、tem. Instead of one unified set of courts ， America has fifty one sets ， each of which operates independently of the others，and each of which is complete with its own trial and appellate courts.The state courts are the courts in which disputes are ordinarily heard. Its trial courts include courtsof

7、limited jurisdiction and courts of general jurisdic ？ tion1.Most states have trial courts of limited jurisdiction. These inferior courts are authorized to hear and determine cases involving a relatively small amount of money or particular subject matters. The names and authority of courts of limited

8、 jurisdiction vary from state to state.All states have courts， usually organized alongcounty lines ， for hearing cases of all types，unlimited by subject matter or amount in controversy. Such courts are referred to as the trial courts of general jurisdiction. The court of general ju ？ risdiction is k

9、nown by different names in different states ： in California it is the Superior Court； inNew York ， it is the Supreme Court； in many states itis the Circuit Court； in other states it is known asthe District Court ， the County Court ， the Court of Common Pleas， and other names. Whatever its name this

10、is the court which hears all cases that are not channeled elsewhere.Most states permit appeal of the determinations made by courts of limited ju？ risdiction. In somestates ， a litigant dissatisfied with the result of the decision by the inferior court may request that the case be retried in the cour

11、t of general juris？diction. In some states， the appeal to the court ofgeneral jurisdiction is the final appeal and in others ， the decision of the court of general jurisdiction may be re？ viewed by further appeal.All states permit appellate review of the decisions of courts of general juris？ diction

12、. Todaythe procedure for obtaining appellate review is usually referred to as an appeal. In a few states there is but one appellate court for appeals from the trial courts of general jurisdiction. Such an appellate court is usually known as the Supreme Court of the state ， but in some states it is k

13、nown as the Court of Ap ？ peals or by some other name. In other states there are two levels of appellate courts， theintermediate appellate courts( usually known as thecourts of appeals ) and the supreme court. All typesof appeals from the trial courts are taken to the intermediate appellate courts；

14、further review in thestate supreme court is taken only at the discretion of the supreme court or upon special request of the interme ？ diate appellate court.The Federal court system parallels the court systems of the states except that the federal courts are courts of limited subject matter jurisdic

15、tion2.The principal trial court of the federal system is the district court. The dis？ trict courts areorganized along territorial lines called districts. Each district com ？ prises a state or a portion of a state.The federal district courts have jurisdiction over several types of cases. A principal

16、type includes actions between citizens of different states where the amount in controversy exceeds $ 10 ， 000. This is known as the “diversity juris？diction3 ” of thefederal courts. A second principal type includes actions by individ？uals “arising under ” federallaw ， known as the “federal question

17、” jurisdiction of the federal courts. A third principal type of federal jurisdiction is actions by or against the Federal Government and its agencies.Determinations made in the federal district courts are ordinarily appealable to the United States Courts of Appeals ， the intermediate appellate court

18、s of the federal system. The Courts of Appeals， formerly knownas the Circuit Courts， principally are organizedterritorially by groups of states known as circuits. There are at present thirteen Courts of Appeals，eleven bearing numbers( First Circuit ， SecondCircuit ， etc. ) with the twelfth being the

19、 Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia and the thirteenth being the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Each Circuit Court consists of several judges who ordinarily sit in panels of three for each case4.The highest court in the federal system is of course the Supreme Court of the Unite

20、d States. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over a very limited class of cases， chiefly actions betweenstates. Its appellate jurisdiction covers cas？ esoriginating in the lower federal courts as well as certain types of cases originat？ ing in state courts.Potentially ， any case originating

21、 in a federal district court may be taken to the Supreme Court. Most of such cases must be appealed initially to the courts of appeals and may be thereafter taken to the Supreme Court at the latters discretion. Of cases originating in state courts ， only those presenting questions of federal law may be considered by the Supreme Court.1. court of limited