英語安全工程專業(yè)翻譯

1、Unit1Safety Management Systems 1. Accident Causation ModelsThe most important aim of safety management is to maintain and promote workers' health and safety at work. Understanding why and how accidents and other unwanted events develop is important when preventive activities are planned. Acciden

2、t theories aim to clarify the accident phenomena，and to explain the mechanisms that lead to accidents. All modem theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. In ancient times, accidents were seen as an act of God and very

3、little could be done to prevent them. In the beginning of the 20th century ， it was believed that the poor physical conditions are the root causes of accidents. Safety practitioners concentrated on improving machine guarding, housekeeping and inspections. In most cases an accident is the result of t

4、wo things ： The human act, and the condition of the physical or social environmentPetersen extended the causation theory from the individual acts and local conditions to the managementsystem. He concluded that unsafe acts, unsafe conditions ， and accidents are all symptoms of something wrong in the

5、organizational management system. Furthermore, he stated that it is the top management who is responsible for building up such a system that caneffectivelycontrol the hazards associated to the organization soroperation. The errors done by a single person can be intentional unintentional. Rasmussen a

6、nd Jensen have presented a three-level skill-rule-knowledge model for describing the origins of the differenttypes of humanerrors.Nowadays， this model is one of the standard methodsin the examination of human errors at work.Accident-proneness models suggest that some people are more likely tosuffer

7、anaccident than others. The first model was created in 1919 ， based on statistical examinations in a mumilions factory. This model dominatedthe safety thinking and research for almost 50 years, and it is still used in some organizations. As a result of this thinking, accident was blamedsolely on emp

8、loyees rather than the work process or poor management practices. Since investigations to discover the underlying causal factors were felt unnecessary and/or too costly, a little attention was paid tohow accidents actually happened. Employees* attitudes towards risks andrisk taking have been studied

9、, e. g. by Sulzer-Azaroff. According to her, employees often behave unsafely, even whenthey are fully aware of the risks involved. Many research results also show that the traditional promotion methods like campaigns, posters and safety slogans have seldom increasedthe use of safe work practices. Wh

10、en backed up by other activities suchas training, these measures have been somewhat more effective. Experiences on some successful methods to change employee behavior and attitudes have been reported. One well-known method is a small-group process used forimproving housekeeping in industrial workpla

11、ces. A comprehensive model ofaccident causation has been presented by Reason who introduced the concept of organizational error. He stated that corporate culture is the starting-point of the accident sequence. Local conditions and human behavior are only contributing factors in the build-up of the u

12、ndesired event. The latent organizational failures lead to accidents and incidents when penetrating system s defenses and barriers. Gmoeneweghas developed Reason s model by classifying the typical latent error types. His TRIPOD mode! calls the different errors as General Failure Types ( CFTs). The c

13、oncept of organizational error is in conjunction with the fact that some organizations behave more safely than others. It is often said that these organizations have good safety culture. After the Chernobyl accident，this term became well-known also to the public.Loss prevention is a concept that is

14、often used in the context of hazard control in process industry. Lees has pointed out that loss prevention differs from traditional safety approach in several ways. For example, there is more emphasis on foreseeing hazards and taking actions before accidents occur. Also, there is more emphasis on a

15、systematic rather than a trial and error approach. This is also natural, since accidents in process industry can have catastrophic consequences. Besides the injuries to people, I he damageto plant and loss of profit are major concerns in loss prevention.The future research on the ultimate causes of

16、accidents seems to focus on the functioning and management of the organization. The strategic management, leadership, motivation, and the personnel's visible and hidden values are some issues that are now under intensive study.2. Safety Management as an Organizational ActivitySafety management i

17、s one of the management activities of a company. Different companies have different managementpractices ， and also different ways to control health and safety hazards. Organizational culture is a major component affecting organizational performance and behavior. One comprehensive definition for an o

18、rganizational culture has been presented by Schein who has said that organizational culture is “ a pattern of basic assumptions invented ， discovered, or developed by a given group as it leans to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be

19、 considered valid and, therefore,to be taught to new membersas the correct way to perceive, think,and feel in relation to those problems". The concept of safety culture istoday under intensive study in industrialized countries. Booth & Lee have stated that an organization's safety cultu

20、re is a subset of the overall organizational culture. This argument, in fact, suggests that a company s organizational culture also determines the maximum level of safety the company can reach. The safety culture of an organization is the productof individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions

21、, competencies, and patterns of behavior that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency of, an organization s health and saf ety management.Furthermore, organizations with a positive safety culture are characterized by communications founded on mutual trust, by shared perceptions of

22、 the importance of safety, and by confidence in the efficacy of preventive measures. There have been many attempts to develop methodsfor measuring safety culture. Williamson el al. have summarized some of the factors that the various studies have shown to influence organization's safety culture.

23、 These include ： organizational responsibility for safety, managementattitudes towards safety, managementactivity in responding tohealth and safety problems, safety training and promotion， level of riskat the workplace ， workers' involvement in safety ， and status of the safety officer and the s

24、afety committee.Organizations behave differently in the different parts of the world. This causes visible differences also in safety activities, both in employeelevel and in the management level. Reasons for these differences are discussed in the following. The studies of Wobbe reveal that shop-floo

25、rworkers in the USA are, in general, less trained and less adaptable thanthose in Germany or Japan. Wobbe claims that one reason for this is that,in the USA, companies providing further training for their staff can expectto lose these people to the competitors. This is not so common in Europeor in J

26、apan. Furthermore ， for unionized companies in the USA ， seniorityis valued very highly ， while training or individual s skills and qualifications do not effect job security ， employment, and wagelevels very much. Oxenburgh has studied the total costs of absence from work, and found that local cultu

27、re and legislation has a strong effect on absenteeism rates. For example, the national systems for paying and receiving compensationexplain the differences to some extent. Oxenburgh mentions Swedenas a high absenteeism country, and Australia as a low absenteeism country. In Sweden injuries and illne

28、sses are paid by the state social security system, while in Australia, the employer pays all these costs, including illnesses notrelated to work. Comparison of accident statistics reveals that there are great national differences in accident frequencies and in the accidentrelated absenteeism from wo

29、rk. Some of the differences can be explainedby the different accident reporting systems. For example, in somecountriesonly absenteeism lasting more than three working days is included in thestatistics. The frequency of minor accidents varies a lot according to the possibility to arrange substitutive

30、 work to the injured worker. Placingthe injured worker to another job or to training is a common practice forexample in the USAand in the UK, while in the Scandinavian countries this is a rarely used procedureSome organizations are more aware of the importance of health and safetyat work than others

31、. Clear development stages can be found in the processof improving the management of safety. Waring has divided organizations to three classes according to their maturity and ability to create aneffective safety managementsystem. Waring calls the three organizational models as the mechanical model,

32、the socio-technical model, and the human activity system approach. In the mechanical model, the structures and processes of an organization are well-defined and logical, but people as individuals, groups, and the whole organizations are not considered. The socio-technical model is an approach to wor

33、k design which recognizes the interaction of technology' and people ， and which produces work systems that are technically effective and have characters that lead to high job satisfaction. A positive dimension in this model is that human factors are seen important, for example, in communication,

34、 training and emergency responses. The last model, the human activity system approach focuses on people, and points out the complexity of organizations. The strength ofthis approach is that both formal (or technical) paradigms and humanaspects like motivation, learning, culture, and power relations

35、are considered.Waring points out that although the human activity approach does not automaticallyguarantee success, it has proven to be beneficial toorganizations in the long run.3. Safety Policy and PlanningA status review is the basis for a safety policy and the planning of safety activities. Acco

36、rding to BS 8800 a status review should compare the company s existing arrangements with the applicable legal requirements,organization'scurrent safety guidelines, best practicesin theindustry s branch ， and the existing resources directed to safety activities.A thorough review ensures that the

37、safety policy and theactivitiesare developed specificallyaccording to the needs of thecompany.A safety policy is the management s expression of the direction to be followed in the organization. According to Petersen, a safety policy should commit the management at all levels and it should indicate w

38、hich tasks, responsibilities and decisions are left to lower-level management. Booth and Lee have stated that a safety policy should also include safety goals as well as quantified objectives and priorities. The standard BS 8800 suggests that in the safety policy ， management should show commitment

39、to the following subjects ： Health and safety are recognized as an integral part of business performance ； A high level of health and safety performance is a goal which is achieved by using the legal requirements as the minimum, and where the continual cost- effective improvement of performance is t

40、he way to do things ；Adequate and appropriate resources are provided to implement the safety policy ；The health and safety objectives are set and published at least by internal notification ； The managementof health and safety is a prime responsibility of the management ， from the most senior execut

41、ive to the supervisory level The policy is understood, implemented, and maintained at all levels in the organization ； Employees are involved and consulted in order to gain commitment to the policy and its implementation;The policy and the management system are reviewed periodically, and the complia

42、nce of the policy is audited on a regular basis;It is ensured that employees receive appropriate training ， and are competent to carry out their duties and responsibilities.Somecompanies have developed so-called “ safety principles which cover the key areas of the company s safety policy. These prin

43、ciples are utilized as safety guidelines hat are easy to remember, and which are often placed on wall-boards and other public areas in the company. As an example, the DuPont company's safety principles are the following： All injuries andoccupational illnesses can be prevented. Management is resp

44、onsible forsafely. Safety is an individual s responsibility and a condition of employment. Training is an essential element for safe workplaces. Audits must be conducted. All deficiencies must be corrected promptly.It is essential to investigate all injuries and incidents with injury potential. Off-

45、the-job safety is an important part of the safety effort. It is good business to prevent injuries and illnesses.People are the most important element of the safety and occupational health program.The safety policy should be put into practice through careful planning ofthe safety activities. Planning

46、 means determination of the safety objectives and priorities, and preparation of the working program to achieve the goals. A company can have different objectives and priorities according to the nature of the typical hazards, and the current status of hazard control. However, somecommonelements to a

47、 safety activity planning can be found. According to BS 8800， the plan should include ： appropriate and adequately resourced arrangements, competent personnel who have defined responsibilities, and effective channels of communication；procedures to set objectives, device and implement plans to meet t

48、he objectives ,and to monitor both the implementation and effectiveness of the plans;description of the hazard identification and assessment activities;methods and techniques for measuring safety performance, and in such way that absence of hazardous events is not seen as evidence that all is well.

49、In the Member States of the European Union, the “ framework” Directive 89/391 / EECobligates the employer to prepare a safety program that defines how the effects of technology, work methods, working conditions, social relationships and work environment are controlled. According lo Walters, this dir

50、ective was originally passed to harmonize the overall safety strategies within the Member States, and to establish a common approach to the managementand organization of safety at work. Planning of the safety activities is often done within the framework of quality and environmentalmanagement system

51、s.一單元安全管理體系1、事故致因模型安全管理的最重要的目的是維護和促進工人的健康和安全工作。了解為什么和怎樣事故和其他有害事件的發(fā)展是非常重要的計劃預防活動時。事故理論旨在澄清事故現象，并解釋說，導致事故發(fā)生的機制。所有現代的理論都是基于事故致因模型而試圖解釋，最后產生損失的事件序列。在古代，意外被視為上帝的行為，很少可以做，以防止他們。在20 世紀初，它被認為體質較差的條件是事故的根源。安全從業(yè)人員集中于提高機器防護，家務和檢查。在大多數情況下，發(fā)生事故的是兩件事情的結果是：人的行為，而物理或社會環(huán)境的條件。彼得森延長了因果關系理論從個體行為，因地制宜的管理體制。他的結論是不安全行為，不安

52、全狀態(tài)，事故是一些錯誤的組織管理系統的所有癥狀。此外，他指出，這是高層管理誰負責建立這樣一個能夠有效控制關聯到組織的運作風險系統。由一個人完成的錯誤可能是有意的還是無意的。拉斯穆森和Jensen 已經提出了三個層次的技能規(guī)則知識模型描述了不同類型的人為錯誤的起源。如今，這種模式是在人為的失誤，在工作中檢驗的標準方法之一。事故傾向性模型表明，有些人更容易患anaccident 比其他人。第一種模式是在 1919 年的基礎上，在mumilions 工廠的統計檢驗。這種模式占主導地位的安全思考和研究了近50 年，它仍然在一些組織使用。由于這種思維的結果，事故是完全歸咎于員工，而不是工作過程或管理不善

53、。由于調查，以發(fā)現潛在的偶然因素被認為不必要和/或成本太高，有點注意了事故如何實際發(fā)生。* 員工態(tài)度對風險和承擔風險進行了研究，電子?？擞商K爾壽- Azaroff 。據她介紹，員工往往不安全的行為，即使他們完全了解所涉及的風險。許多研究結果還表明，傳統的促銷方法，如宣傳活動，海報和安全標語很少增加了使用的安全工作實踐。當其他活動，如培訓備份，這些措施已較為有效。已經報道了一些成功的方法來改變員工的行為和態(tài)度的體驗。一個眾所周知的方法是用于改善管家在工業(yè)場所一個小團體的過程。事故原因的綜合模型已經提出了理性誰介紹組織錯誤的概念。他說，企業(yè)文化是企業(yè)的出發(fā)點事故序列。當地的條件和人類行為的唯一起作

54、用的因素在集結了不需要的事件。穿透系統的防御和障礙時，潛伏組織失靈導致事故和事故征候。Gmoeneweg已通過分類典型的潛在錯誤類型發(fā)展原因的模型。他的三腳架模式！調用不同的錯誤，一般故障類型 （ CFTS） 。 組織錯誤的概念是與事實有些組織表現比其他人更放心地結合。人們常常說，這些組織具有良好的安全文化。切爾諾貝利事故發(fā)生后，這個詞成為知名的也給公眾。防損是一個經常在過程工業(yè)危險源監(jiān)控的情況下使用的一個概念。酒糟指出，防損不同于傳統的安全方法在幾個方面。例如，更強調預見的危害，并采取行動，事故發(fā)生之前。此外，還有更強調系統性，而?不是一個試錯的方法。這也是自然的，因為在過程工業(yè)事故可能產生

55、災難性的后果。除了受傷的人，我他破壞種植和利潤損失是損失預防重大關切。對事故的根本原因，未來的研究似乎集中在組織的運作和管理。戰(zhàn)略管理，領導，激勵，以及人員的可見和隱藏的價值觀有些問題是現在正在深入研究。2、安全管理作為組織活動安全管理是一個公司的管理活動之一。不同的企業(yè)有不同的管理方式，也不同的方式來控制健康和安全隱患。組織文化是影響組織績效和行為的重要組成部分。對于組織文化的一個全面的定義已經提出了施恩誰曾表示，組織文化是“的格局基本假設，發(fā)明，發(fā)現，或由某一組開發(fā)，因為它偏向應對外部適應和內部整合的問題- 這一直運作良好，足以被認為是有效的，因此，要教給新成員的感知，思考和感覺有關這些問

56、題的正確方式。 “安全文化的概念如今正在工業(yè)化的深入研究國家展位和李都表示，一個組織的安全文化是整個組織文化的一個子集。這種說法，其實表明，一個公司的組織文化也決定了安全的最高水平，公司可以達到。的安全文化組織是個人和群體的價值觀，態(tài)度，觀念，能力和行為模式的確定承諾的產品和風格，以及一個組織的健康和安全管理水平。此外，以積極的安全文化機構的特點通過建立在相互信任，通過安全的重要性共享的觀念溝通，并通過信心的預防措施的有效性。已經有許多嘗試開發(fā)用于測量安全文化的方法。威廉姆森EL AL?？偨Y了一些的因素各種研究表明，影響企業(yè)的安全文化，其中包括：用于對在應對健康和安全問題，安全培訓和推廣，風險

57、的工作場所層面，在工人參與安全，管理活動的安全，管理態(tài)度的組織責任安全，安全主任和安全委員會的地位。組織的行為不同，在世界的不同部分。這將導致明顯的差異也是安全的活動，無論是在員工水平和管理水平。這些差異的原因將在下面討論。沃伯的研究表明，車間工人在美國，一般來說，少訓練，比德國或日本較難適應。沃伯聲稱，一個原因是，在美國，企業(yè)提供進?一步的培訓，他們的工作人員可以指望這些人失去了競爭對手。這是不是很常見于歐洲或日本。此外，對于工會組織的企業(yè)，在美國，排名先后乃非常重視，而訓練或個人的技能和資歷不影響工作保障，就業(yè)和工資水平非常。Oxenburgh 已經研究沒有從工作的總成本，并發(fā)現當地的文化

58、和法律對缺勤率有很大的影響。例如，國家系統支付和接收補償解釋這些差異在一定程度上。Oxenburgh 提到瑞典的高缺勤率的國家，澳大利亞作為一個低曠工國家。在瑞典，傷害和疾病都是由國家社會保障體系支付，而在澳洲，雇主支付所有這些費用，包括與工作無關的疾病。事故統計數據比較表明，有在事故頻率和從工作中意外缺勤偉大的民族差異。有些分歧可以通過不同的事故報告系統來解釋。例如，在有些國家只缺勤持續(xù)超過三個工作日被統計在內。小事故的頻率根據安排替代性的工作，受傷工人的可能性是十分不同的。配售受傷工人到另一份工作或培訓，例如在美國和英國的普遍做法，而在斯堪的納維亞國家，這是一個很少使用的程序。有些組織更加意識到健康和安全的工作比其他人的重要性。清晰的發(fā)展階段，可以在提高安全性的管理過程中被發(fā)現。華林劃分了組織三類根據其成熟度，并建立一個有效的安全管理制度的能力。華林調用三種組織模式的力學模型，社會和技?術模式，以及人類活動的系統方法。在力學模型，一個組織的結構和流程都明確定義和邏輯，但人們作為個體，群體和整個組織都沒有考慮。社會和技術模式，是設計工作，其中確認技術“和人互動，并產生了在技