戴煒棟英語語言學概論Chapter 6

1、Chapter 6 PragmaticsvSome basic notions vSpeech act theory vPrinciple of conversation vCross-cultural pragmatic failure What is pragmatics?vPragmatics studies the meaning in the context of language use.The view of traditional semantics vThe meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic,

2、and inherent, i.e., a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in isolation from language use. v語言的意義被認為是內在的、固有的，即依附語言的意義被認為是內在的、固有的，即依附于語言自身的特征。因此，詞的意義和句子的于語言自身的特征。因此，詞的意義和句子的意義都應該從語言運用中孤立出來加以研究。意義都應該從語言運用中孤立出來加以研究。Pragmatics vs. sem

3、anticsvWhat essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. Cont

4、ext vIt is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. vContext determines the speakers use of language and also the hearers interpretation of what is said to him. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning (句子意義與話語意義)vA sentence is a grammatical concept, a

5、nd the meaning of a sentence is abstract and isolated from context.vIf the sentence is uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, it becomes an utterance. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent.The relationship between the twovThe meaning of an utterance is based

6、on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Speech act theory (言語行為理論言語行為理論)vIt was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin (約翰奧斯汀) in the late 50s of the 20th century. vAccording to the speech

7、 act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.vAccording to his new model, a speak might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.vlocutionary act (言內行為): the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. (傳達字面意義) vill

8、ocutionary act (言外行為): the act of expressing the speakers intention. (表明說話意圖) vperlocutionary act (言后行為): the effect of the utterance. (話語產生的效果) Searles classification of speech acts (塞爾對言語行為的分類)vJohn Searle: American philosopher linguist vOne of the contributions Searle has made is his classificati

9、on of illocutionary acts.vAccording to Searle, speech acts fall into five general categories: Five general categoriesv1. representatives (闡述類闡述類): stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.vIn other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker i

10、s making a statement or giving a description which himself believes to be true, such as stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing. vExamples: P83: (6-9) (6-10)v2. directives (指令類指令類): trying to get the hearer to do something, such as inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening

11、, ordering.vExamples: Open the window! Youd batter go to the clinic. Your money or your life! Would you like to go to the picnic with us? v3. commissives (承諾類承諾類): committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. (對未來的某個行為作出承諾) vThat is to say, when speaking the speaker puts himself u

12、nder a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical cases.v Examples: I promise to come. I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail. v4. expressives (表達類表達類): expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.v Examp

13、les: Im sorry for the mess I have made. Its really kind of you to have thought of me. v5. declarations (宣告類宣告類): bringing about immediate changes by saying something.v Examples: I now declare the meeting open. I appoint you chairman of the committee. I fire you!Indirect speech acts (間接言語行為)vIt was p

14、roposed by John Searle.vAccording to Searle, when a speaker is using indirect language, he is performing two speech acts simultaneously: primary speech act (首要言語行為) and secondary speech act (次要言語行為).vThe primary speech act is the speakers goal of communication while the secondary speech act is the m

15、eans by which he achieves his goal.vExample: P85: (6-28) Principle of conversation (會話原則)vPaul Grice (格賴斯), an American philosopher and logician, holds that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on th

16、e talk. vTwo kinds of implied meaning or implicature: conventional implicature (規(guī)約含意) and non- conventional implicature (非規(guī)約含意).vparticularized conversational implicature (特殊會話含意) - should be inferred by the hearer with reference to the context of communication.Cooperate Principle (CP) 合作原則合作原則vGene

17、ral Principle: P87 Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. 在參與交談時，要使你說的話符合你所參與在參與交談時，要使你說的話符合你所參與的交談的公認的目的或方向。的交談的公認的目的或方向。Four maxims of CP:vThe maxim of quantity (數(shù)量準則

18、數(shù)量準則)vThe maxim of quality (質量準則質量準則)vThe maxim of relation (關系準則關系準則)vThe maxim of manner (方式準則方式準則) The maxim of quantity (數(shù)量準則數(shù)量準則)vMake your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) 你所說的話應包含(當前交談意圖)所需要的信息vDo not make your contribution more informative tha

19、n is required. 所說的話不應包含超出需要的信息The maxim of quality (質量準則質量準則)vDo not say what you believe to be false. 不要說自知是假的話vDo nor say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要說缺乏根據(jù)的話The maxim of relation (關系準則關系準則)vBe relevant. 要有關聯(lián)性The maxim of manner (方式準則方式準則)vAvoid obscurity of expression. 避免表達晦澀vAvoi

20、d ambiguity. 避免歧義vBe brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 要簡練 (避免不必要的冗繁)vBe orderly. 要條理清晰Conversational implicature (會話含意)vConversational implicature occurs only when the maxims are “flouted”. vFlouting a maxim means violating it blatantly, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation. vExamples: P88.Cross-cultural pragmatic failure (跨文化語用失誤)vPragmatic failure refers to communication breakdown resulting from being unable to really understand each other. vPragmatic failures occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specif