國際企業(yè)管理_5.制度、文化和道德規(guī)范對跨國公司戰(zhàn)略的影響

1、國際企業(yè)管理崔 浩中山大學管理學院工商管理系二一年四月一日第四講回憶2國際化戰(zhàn)略 跨國公司國際化動機比較優(yōu)勢理論要素稟賦理論產(chǎn)品生命周期理論新貿(mào)易理論 規(guī)模經(jīng)濟波特的鉆石模型跨國公司理論內(nèi)部化理論折衷模型 OLI知識本位觀和跨國公司演化理論國際貿(mào)易理論亞當斯密，?國富論?絕對優(yōu)勢理論國家間也應(yīng)該分工大衛(wèi)李嘉圖相對優(yōu)勢理論做自己擅長做的事情貿(mào)易可以解決生產(chǎn)率的差異，不需要對外投資要素稟賦理論同種商品的絕對價差本錢差異要素價差要素存量比率差異要素供給要素稟賦里昂惕夫悖論列昂惕夫1953 年利用美國投入產(chǎn)出模型計算了1947 年美國的貿(mào)易結(jié)構(gòu)， 對赫克歇爾俄林的理論進行了實證分析列昂惕夫?qū)σ胤A賦理

2、論兩度驗證的結(jié)果都說明：作為資本密集型的美國，進口的資本密集型產(chǎn)品的數(shù)量遠遠大于勞動密集型產(chǎn)品數(shù)量美國對外貿(mào)易的結(jié)構(gòu)和商品流向同歷來被學術(shù)界奉為經(jīng)典的要素稟賦理論明顯地相互矛盾這樣的驗證結(jié)果無法用傳統(tǒng)的貿(mào)易理論加以解釋與說明，因此被稱為“里昂惕夫悖論或“里昂惕夫之謎Leontief Paradox 里昂惕夫悖論列昂惕夫本人是贊成要素稟賦理論的作為“謎之始作俑者，列昂惕夫本人的解釋：要素效率差異 ：美國生產(chǎn)要素的“高效率“在同一定數(shù)量資本的任何一種組合中，美國每一人年勞動說起來都應(yīng)當相當于外國的3人年勞動 源于：卓越的企業(yè)家精神Entrepreneurship、一流的管理組織Superior O

3、rganization、相互促進的良好工作環(huán)境Favorable Environment美國進口的是低技能的資本密集型產(chǎn)品美國出口的是高技能的資本密集型產(chǎn)品 產(chǎn)品生命周期Vernon， 1966出口帶動知識流動國家間生產(chǎn)本錢變動產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)在不同經(jīng)濟開展水平的國家間流動沒有明確的說明直接對外投資活動興旺國家間貿(mào)易比興旺國家和開展中國家間貿(mào)易多很多倍新貿(mào)易理論Paul Krugman, 1983，New Trade Theory，規(guī)模經(jīng)濟同一行業(yè)，單一產(chǎn)品，兩個大國，每個國家一個壟斷者，在國際上形成寡頭競爭如果A國開始征收關(guān)稅，B國企業(yè)的規(guī)模經(jīng)濟下降，A過企業(yè)的規(guī)模經(jīng)濟上升，于是A國企業(yè)在國際市場

4、上的競爭力上升B國企業(yè)在A國投資貿(mào)易戰(zhàn)的可能性“protected babies never grow新貿(mào)易理論關(guān)稅，政府干預，規(guī)模經(jīng)濟也可以成為貿(mào)易的驅(qū)動力PTPWQW1QT23PT*PQSD本國市場PQXSMD世界市場PQS*D*外國市場新貿(mào)易理論關(guān)稅后的國內(nèi)市場SDPWS1D1Pw+tS2D2關(guān)稅前進口：D1-S1關(guān)稅后進口：D2-S2S1S2D2D1QPSDPT Pw新貿(mào)易理論P*T消費者損失 (a+b+c+d)生產(chǎn)者所得 (a)政府收入 (c+e)acebde ? b+d新貿(mào)易理論貿(mào)易條件改善所得： e效率損失： b+d新貿(mào)易理論：如果：稟賦價格差貿(mào)易那么：規(guī)模經(jīng)濟價格差貿(mào)易所以：大

5、國通過關(guān)稅提高本國企業(yè)規(guī)模經(jīng)濟，增強國際競爭力實質(zhì)上：政府參與貿(mào)易，犧牲本國公民福利，補貼本國廠商如果廠商不能在貿(mào)易條件改善的條件下增加效率，那么福利為凈損失但是：“protected babies never grow而且：貿(mào)易戰(zhàn)的可能性非常大國家競爭優(yōu)勢鉆石模型跨國公司理論壟斷優(yōu)勢理論 (Hymer-Kindleberger Tradition) Stephen Hymer, “International Operation of National Firms: A study of Direct Foreign Investment 根本前提：結(jié)構(gòu)性市場不完全性structural ma

6、rket imperfection產(chǎn)品差異、營銷技能不同 專利保護、技術(shù)秘密和管理水平等不同 規(guī)模經(jīng)濟 政府干預 企業(yè)的特定優(yōu)勢(firm specific advantage) 創(chuàng)新、本錢、融資或市場優(yōu)勢 跨國公司理論內(nèi)部化理論 基于交易本錢的跨國公司理論Buckley & Casson, 1976五大因素共同促進跨國公司的快速開展：對技術(shù)密集型產(chǎn)品的需求增多對公司而言，知識產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)存在著規(guī)模經(jīng)濟這種知識產(chǎn)品的外部市場是不完全的國際通訊費用的降低企業(yè)通過內(nèi)部轉(zhuǎn)移定價transfer pricing減少稅收支出的行為日益頻繁。企業(yè)的內(nèi)部化決定受四類因素的影響：行業(yè)特定因素：關(guān)于產(chǎn)品的特征和外

7、部市場的結(jié)構(gòu)地區(qū)特定因素：包括地理位置和文化距離等等國別特定因素：東道國政府在政策、法律、經(jīng)濟等方面的政策企業(yè)特定因素：主要是指企業(yè)組織內(nèi)部市場的協(xié)調(diào)和管理能力跨國公司理論John Dunning, 1981, “The Eclectic Paradigm企業(yè)有所有權(quán)優(yōu)勢 O選擇有區(qū)位優(yōu)勢的國家或地區(qū) L選擇正確的內(nèi)部化策略 I配合正確的國際化戰(zhàn)略 S跨國公司理論知識本位觀 - knowledge based-viewKogut & Zander, 1992, 1993跨國公司是在國家間轉(zhuǎn)移知識的有效途徑企業(yè)通過在全球范圍內(nèi)的學習獲取知識知識在跨國公司內(nèi)部傳遞形成獨特的能力跨國公司通過對自身知

8、識的應(yīng)用認識到核心競爭力跨國公司的超額收益來源于對這種核心競爭力的使用假設(shè)：知識的特性導致市場在傳遞知識上的低效率子公司是不一樣的 異質(zhì)的跨國公司理論文化距離的影響Edward T. Hall, 1960, “跨國商務(wù)中的無聲語言, HBRGeert Hofstede, 1980，1991 主要影響區(qū)位選擇和子公司管理制度距離的影響Kostova, 1999; Kostova & Zaheer, 1999; Xu & Shenkar, 2002規(guī)那么性距離Regulative distances名義性距離Normative distances認知性距離Cognitive distances主要

9、影響區(qū)位選擇、進入方式和子公司管理跨國公司理論“The Transnational Solution, Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989跨國公司理論尋求全球效率的提高和對當?shù)厥袌龅倪m應(yīng)難于實施，因為同時要求很強的中央控制和協(xié)調(diào)以實現(xiàn)高效率分權(quán)以實現(xiàn)對本地市場的適應(yīng)企業(yè)必須通過組織學習來實現(xiàn)競爭優(yōu)勢跨國戰(zhàn)略跨國公司理論 開展“外來者義務(wù) liability of foreignnessZaheer, 1995, AMJ全球戰(zhàn)略的吸引力在降低全球戰(zhàn)略并不象以往一樣流行實行全球戰(zhàn)略越來越困難區(qū)域化 regionalizationRugman, 2005Fortune 500 公司里面

10、沒有真正在“triad市場都均衡開展的強調(diào)某些區(qū)域而不是全球市場需要對于文化、法律和社會價值的更細致的理解地區(qū)總部的建立Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 623Firm Size, Domestic Market Size, and Propensity to InternationalizeFigure 6.1Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 624A Comprehensive Model of Foreign Market EntriesFigure 6

11、.2The Choice of Entry Modes: A Hierarchical ModelFigure 6.3第五講 制度、文化和道德標準對跨國公司戰(zhàn)略的影響26Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 427Opening Case: Behind the Profitability of Big PharmaQuestions:Why is the global pharmaceutical industry, represented by the Big Pharma, so profitable?What determ

12、ines the strategies and performance of firms in this industry?Answers:Industry-based answer: Five forcesResource-based answer: Firm resources and capabilitiesInstitution-based answer: What about the formal role of different governments? What about the informal norms of acceptable prices and practice

13、s around the world? What about the values and influences of various stakeholders?Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 428Prices of the Same United States-Developed Drugs Around the World (2003)Table 4.1Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 429Understanding InstitutionsInfo

14、rmal definition: “Rules of the gameFormal definition: “Humanly devised constraints that structure human interaction (North)Institutions certainly affect individual and firm behaviorsAn institution-based view of strategy:Covering institutions, cultures, and ethicsStrategists need to appreciate the “b

15、ig picture in which competition around the globe takes place.Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 430Understanding Institutions (contd)An Institutional FrameworkFormal and informal institutions that govern individual and firm behavior These formal and informal institutions are supporte

16、d by three “pillars (Scott)Table 4.2Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 431What Do Institutions Do?Institutions affect the strategy of firms by:Reducing uncertainty.Signaling conduct as acceptable or not, which constrains the range of acceptable actions.Uncertainty can lead to transac

17、tions costsTransaction costs: Costs associated with economic transactionsor more broadly, costs of doing businessA major source of transaction costs: Opportunism“Self-interest seeking with guile (Williamson)The possibility of opportunism introduces uncertaintyCopyright 2005 South-Western. All rights

18、 reserved. 432Why Is It Important to Reduce Uncertainty?Without stable institutional frameworksTransaction costs may be so high (e.g., extensive opportunism) that certain transactions would not take place.Example: If credible institutional frameworks are absent, investors may choose to put money abr

19、oad (e.g., capital flight from Russia).Investment is severely limited without an effective system of property rights (SIA 4.1: Argentina).However, certain informal institutions can substitute for a lack of formal property rights.Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 433How to Reduce Unc

20、ertainty?Two kinds of institutionsinformal and formal reduce uncertainty in economic transactionsRelational contracting: based on informal institutionsInformal, relationship-based, personalized exchange (Figure 4.1)Benefits outweigh costs, up to a certain point.Arms-length transaction: based on form

21、al institutionsFormal, rule-based, impersonal exchange with third-party enforcement (Figure 4.2)Benefits outweigh costs, when the scale and scope of the economy become very largeCopyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 434The Costs and Benefits of Informal, Relationship-Based, Personalized

22、 ExchangeFigure 4.1Source: M. W. Peng (2003), Institutional transitions and strategic choices (p. 279), Academy of Management Review, 28 (2): 275296.Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 435Informal InstitutionsConstraints on socially sanctioned norms of behavior.Professional norms do n

23、ot have the force of law, but are obeyed by those in a profession.Physicians, professors, lawyers, and accountantsCommercial norms are adhered to by most persons in a modern economy.In developing nations, personal relations substitute for formal institutions when commercial and professional norms ar

24、e not well established.Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 436Informal Institutions (contd)Informal institutions suggest expected behaviors Everyone knows these unwritten “rules (drinking with colleagues)If formal constraints fail, informal constraints play a larger role in reducing u

25、ncertaintyThis is especially important during institutional transitions Fundamental and comprehensive changes introduced to the formal and informal rules of the game that affect organizations as players“Transition economies: A subset of emerging economies, such as China, Russia, PolandThe importance

26、 of guanxi and blat during Chinas and Russias recent institutional transitions, respectivelyCopyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 437Source: M. W. Peng, 2003, Institutional transitions and strategic choices (p. 280), Academy of Management Review, 28 (2): 275296. Copyright 2003. Reprinte

27、d by permission of Academy of Management Review via Copyright Clearance Center.The Costs and Benefits of Formal, Rule-Based, Impersonal ExchangeCopyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 438Formal InstitutionsFormal InstitutionsAn expensive legal and regulatory framework of courts, police, l

28、awyers, regulators, and other mechanisms that enforce laws and regulations to facilitate the widening of marketsBenefits of Formal InstitutionsSupport arms-length transactions by bringing distant parties (strangers) together. Foster rule-based transactions that attract new players into a global econ

29、omy that cannot operate on informal institutions alone.Facilitate economic expansion and growthCopyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 439An Institution-Based View of StrategyInstitutional frameworks are more than the “task environmentThe Porter “diamond model: Determinants of national co

30、mpetitive advantage in certain industries (Figure 4.3)First published in 1990: Very influential However, it has been criticized because it ignores histories and institutionsThe institution-based view asks (for example): What is behind firm rivalry? (see Opening Case)Copyright 2005 South-Western. All

31、 rights reserved. 440The Porter Diamond: Determinants of National Competitive AdvantageFigure 4.3Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review from “The competitive advantage of nations (p. 77) by Michael Porter, March/April 1990. Copyright 1990 by the Harvard Business School Publishing

32、 Corporation; all rights reserved.Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 441An Institution-Based View of Strategy (contd)Institutions are more than background conditionsInstitutions provide guidelines to firms as to how they can act, and what can be done with legal or other guarantees.In

33、stitutions directly impact a firms formulation and implementation of strategy (Figure 4.4). In two words: Institutions matter.The key question: How do they matter?Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 442Institutions, Firms, and Strategic ChoicesFigure 4.4Sources: Adapted from (1) M. W.

34、 Peng, 2000, Business Strategies in Transition Economies (p. 45), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing.; (2) M. W. Peng, 2002, Towards an institution-based view of business strategy (p. 253), Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19 (2): 251267.Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 443Two C

35、ore PropositionsManagers and firms rationally pursue their interests and make strategic choices within institutional constraintsOpening Case: Japanese pharmaceutical firms do not as relentlessly pursue new innovations as US firms do.Closing Case: Why do some entrepreneurs choose to engage in counter

36、feiting?While formal and informal constraints combine to govern firm behavior, when formal constraints fail, informal constraints play a larger role Informal, political connections are helpful in both emerging and developed economiesCopyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 444The Strategic

37、 Role of Culture Culture“The collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another (Hofstede)Is the most informal and least codified part of a countrys institutional framework.Impacts the strategy of firms.Firms must understand cultural ru

38、le sets of the society in which they are doing business just as they must understand its legal regulations and professional and commercial norms.Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 445Hofstedes Dimensions of Cultural ValuesPower DistanceDistinguishes the levels of hierarchy accepted b

39、y the society.Individualism versus CollectivismFocuses on the importance of the individual versus the group in social and business situations.Masculinity versus femininityMeasures the degree of sex role differentiation.Uncertainty AvoidanceIdentifies the tolerance for ambiguity.Long-term Orientation

40、Emphasizes perseverance and savings for future betterment.Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 446Hofstede Dimensions of CultureaTable 4.3a. When the scores are the same, countries are listed according to their alphabetical order. Arab countries, East Africa, and West Africa are cluste

41、rs of multiple countries. Germany and Yugoslavia refer to the former West Germany and the former Yugoslavia, respectively. Sources: Adapted from G. Hosftede, 1997, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (pp. 26, 53, 84, 113, 166), New York: McGraw-Hill. Data on the first four dimensions ar

42、e based on surveys of IBM employees during 196872, first published in G. Hosftede, 1980, Cultures Consequences, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing. Data on the fifth dimension are based on surveys of students during the 1980s, first published in The Chinese Culture Connections, 1987, Chinese values

43、and the search for culture-free dimensions of culture, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18: 143164.Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 447Culture and StrategyPower DistanceFrench and Italian managers have a penchant for centralized authority; French and Italian subsidiaries abroa

44、d are more likely to have majority ownership control.Solicitation of subordinate feedback and participation (“empowerment), widely used in Western European and North American countries, is seen as a sign of weak leadership and low integrity in higher power distance countries (Egypt, India, Mexico, a

45、nd Russia).Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 448Culture and Strategy (contd)Individualism versus CollectivismIndividualist U.S. firms often desire to find ways to differentiate, whereas collectivist Japanese firms have a tendency to converge on a defensible position.Because entrepre

46、neurs are usually willing to take more risk, individualistic societies tend to foster relatively more entrepreneurship.Collectivism may result in relatively lower levels of entrepreneurship. Singapore and Japan currently score very low on entrepreneurship.Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights res

47、erved. 449Culture and Strategy (contd)Masculinity versus FemininityHigh masculinity countries“Good managers are typically assertive, decisive, and “aggressive (only in masculine countries does this word carry a positive connotation)Firms may have a relative advantage in mass manufacturing (e.g., Jap

48、an). High femininity countries Managers are less visible, more intuitiveFirms may have a relative advantage in small-scale, customized manufacturing, agricultural and forestry exports, and service industries (e.g., Sweden, Norway, Netherlands, and Denmark).Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights re

49、served. 450Culture and Strategy (contd)Uncertainty avoidanceManagers in low uncertainty avoidance countries (e.g., Great Britain) rely on experience and training.Managers in high uncertainty avoidance countries (e.g., China) rely more on rules and procedures.Example: The Swissair crash (1998)U.S. co

50、mmentators: Rules are there to be broken during emergencies!Swissair officials: Rules exist exactly for such emergencies! Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 451Culture and Strategy (contd)Long-term orientation: Cultures with long-term orientation nurture firms with longer horizons in

51、 strategic planning. Japanese and Korean firms are willing to forego short-term profits to focus more on market share.SIA 1.1: Matsushitas 250-year planWestern firms focus on short-term quarterly profitsChapter 10 Closing Case: In the oil industry, there is a recent tendency to shorten the planning

52、horizon from 10-15 years to 5 years or less. Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 452The Strategic Importance of CultureUnderstanding cultural differences is crucial, especially when competing internationally and globally.Culturally nave and ignorant firms may commit strategic blunders

53、.Chevy Nova car “No go in SpanishWhite Elephant brand battery from ChinaMitsubishi Motors in America: $34 million fine to settle sexual harassment charges in a low masculinity country (relative to Japan)Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 453The Strategic Role of EthicsEthics: Norms,

54、principles, and standards of conduct governing individual and firm behaviorEthics: Not only an important part of informal institutions, but also deeply reflected in formal laws and regulationsWhat is illegal is typically unethicalWhat is legal may be unethical (e.g., mass lay-off downsizing)What is

55、unethical is not always necessarily illegalRecent interest in business ethics:Fueled by unethical scandals at Enron, WorldCom, Parmalat, etcEthics Officer Association: 12 member firms (1992) 1,000 firms (2004)In this book, ethics is not only emphasized here, but also throughout all chapters (see cri

56、tical discussion questions ON ETHICS in every chapter, especially Chapter 12)Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 454Views on Business EthicsA negative viewFirms are forced to jump on the ethics “bandwagon under social pressures while not necessarily becoming more ethical.A positive vi

57、ewFirms want to do it right regardless of social pressures.An instrumental viewEthics: A useful instrument for good profitsThe value of ethical reputation is magnified during a crisisInstitution-based explanationAll of the above may be accurate, for some firmsSee the Strategic Response Framework (Ta

58、ble 4.5)Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 455Managing Ethics OverseasEthical standards are different around the worldWhistle blowers, ethical in America, are unethical in JapanMicrosofts competitive actions, after surviving U.S. legal scrutiny, are found to be unethical and illegal

59、by the EUEthical relativismWhen in Rome, do as the Romans doEthical imperialismThere is only one set of good Ethics, and we have it!Three “middle-of-the-road guiding principlesRespect for human dignity and basic rights.Respect for local traditions (e.g., gift-giving)Respect for institutional context

60、sCopyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 456Transparency International Corruption RankingsTable 4.4Copyright 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 457A Strategic Response FrameworkTable 4.5Sources: Based on (1) A. Carroll, 1979, A three-dimensional conceptual model of corporate social