土木工程專業(yè)英語上冊翻譯蘇小卒同濟大學(考試手機專業(yè)版)

1、葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈

2、芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂

3、肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆

4、蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀

5、膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇

6、莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂

7、芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆

8、肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀

9、莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄

10、膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿

11、莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆

12、節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀

13、肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄

14、芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿

15、膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂袀膇莀莁薀羀莆莀螂芆節(jié)荿襖聿膈莈羇袁蒆莇蚆肇莂莇蝿袀羋蒆袁肅膄蒅薁袈肀蒄蚃肅葿蒃裊袆蒞蒂羈膂芁蒂蚇羄膇蒁螀膀肅蒀袂羃莁蕿薂膈芇薈蚄羈膃薇螆膇聿薆羈罿蒈薆蚈袂莄薅螀肈芀薄袃袀膆薃薂肆肂螞蚅衿莁蟻螇肄芇蝕衿袇膃蝕蠆肅腿蠆螁羅蕆蚈襖膁莃蚇羆羄艿蚆蚆腿膅莃螈羂肁莂 本課程介紹 在學習普通英語（包括常用詞匯和語法結(jié)構(gòu)）的基礎上，接合前幾個學期已經(jīng)掌握的關于土木工程的專業(yè)知識，本課

16、程節(jié)選了土木工程專業(yè)英語上冊中的laborious（繁復的） process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades（刀刃）. After the invention of the Bessemer process （貝塞麥煉鋼法）in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile strength; that is, it does not lose i

17、ts strength when it is under a calculated degree (適當?shù)? of tension, a force which, as we have seen, tends to （往往）pull apart many materials. New alloys have further increased the strength of steel and eliminated some of its problems, such as fatigue, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of

18、 continual changes in stress（連續(xù)的應力變化）.作為現(xiàn)代兩種最重要的建筑材料，鋼材與水泥在十九世紀得到了推廣。直到那個時候，鋼材才通過繁復的過程制造出來，基本上是鐵合金，并含有少量的碳，因而被限制在一些特殊的用途如刀刃。在1856年發(fā)明了貝塞麥煉鋼法后，鋼材才得以大量低價獲得。鋼材巨大的優(yōu)勢即是它的抗拉強度，也就是當它在適當?shù)睦ο虏粫姸?，正如我們所看到的，該力往往能夠?qū)⒑芏嗖牧侠_。新的合金進一步提高了鋼材的強度，并消除了一些缺點，如疲勞，即在連續(xù)的應力變化下導致強度減弱的趨勢。Modern cement, called Portland cement, w

19、as invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone（石灰石） and clay, which is heated and then ground into a powder（磨成粉末）. It is mixed at or near the construction site （施工現(xiàn)場）with sand, aggregate (small stones, crushed rock, or gravel), and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients

20、（配料）produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or evensprayed into （噴射成）all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other（互補）

21、. 現(xiàn)代水泥發(fā)明于1824年，稱為波特蘭水泥。它是石灰石和粘土的混合物，加熱后磨成粉末。在或靠近施工現(xiàn)場，將水泥與砂、骨料（小石頭、壓碎的巖石或礫石）、水混合而制成混凝土。不同比例的配料會制造出不同強度和重量的混凝土?；炷恋挠猛竞芏?，可以澆筑、泵送甚至噴射成各種形狀?；炷辆哂泻艽蟮目箟簭姸?，而鋼材具有很大的抗拉強度。這樣，兩種材料可以互補。They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can

22、 work together in situations where（在情況下） both compression and tension are factors（主要因素）. Steel rods（鋼筋） are embedded in（埋入）concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tension will develop（出現(xiàn)）. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond - the force that unites（粘合）

23、them - that the steel cannot slip（滑移） with the concrete. Still（還有） another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid（酸） corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.它們也以另外一種方式互補：它們幾乎有相同的收縮率和膨脹率。因此，它們在拉、壓為主要因素時能共同工作。在出現(xiàn)拉力的混凝土梁或結(jié)構(gòu)中，將鋼筋埋入混凝土而成鋼筋

24、混凝土?；炷僚c鋼筋形成如此強大的結(jié)合力這個力將它們粘合在一起以致于鋼筋在混凝土中不會滑移。還有另一個優(yōu)勢是鋼筋在混凝土中不會銹蝕。酸能腐蝕鋼筋，而混凝土會發(fā)生堿性的化學反應，與酸相反。The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices（施工作業(yè)）. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory build

25、ings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors（防火地面）. Both these changes served to（有利于） reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect（建造）buildings with greater heights and longer spans.結(jié)構(gòu)鋼與鋼筋混凝土的采用使傳統(tǒng)的施工作業(yè)發(fā)生了明顯的變化。對多層建筑，再也沒必要采用厚的石墻或磚墻，且施工防火地面變?yōu)槿菀椎枚?。這些變化有利于降低建筑的成本

26、。它也使建造高度更高和跨度更大的建筑物成為可能。Since the weight of modern structures is carried（承受） by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were gen

27、erally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls（承重墻）. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations. 由于現(xiàn)代結(jié)構(gòu)的重量由鋼或混凝土框架承受，墻體不再支承建筑物。它們成為幕墻，將日曬風吹雨打阻擋在外，而讓光線進入。在較早的鋼或混凝土框架建筑中，幕墻一般由砌體構(gòu)成；它們具有承重墻的結(jié)實外觀。但是今

28、天，幕墻通常由輕質(zhì)材料組成，如玻璃、鋁或塑料，并形成不同的組合。Another advance in steel construction（結(jié)構(gòu)） is the method of fastening together（連在一起） the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting. A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw（圓頭螺絲釘） without threads（螺紋）. It is heated, placed in holes throug

29、h the pieces of steel（鋼構(gòu)件）, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering（錘擊）it to hold it in place（固定就位）. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of pieces of steel by melting（熔化） a steel material between them under high heat. 鋼結(jié)構(gòu)中的另一個進步是梁的連接方式。在很多年里，連接的標

30、準方式是鉚接。鉚釘是個有頭的螺栓，看上去象個沒有螺紋的圓頭螺絲釘。鉚釘加熱后穿過鋼構(gòu)件之間的孔洞，并通過錘擊另一端而形成第二個鉚釘頭，從而將其固定就位。如今鉚接已大量地被焊接所替代，鋼構(gòu)件間的連接通過在高熱下熔化它們之間的鋼材料（即焊條）進行。Prestressed concrete is an improved form of reinforcement（加強方法）. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strength. They are then used to

31、prestress （對.預加應力）concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to（相應于） the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mor

32、tar or binding agent. In the other (and more common) method, the prestressed steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form（模板） that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure（成品結(jié)構(gòu)）, and the concrete is poured around them. Prestressed concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it

33、 is so economical, it is a highly desirable（非常理想） material.預應力混凝土是加強法的改進形式。將鋼筋彎成一定的形狀以使它們具有必要的抗拉強度，然后用該鋼筋對混凝土施加預應力，通?？刹捎脙煞N不同方法中的任何一種。第一種方法是在混凝土梁中按鋼筋的形狀留下孔道，當鋼筋穿過孔道后，通過在孔道內(nèi)灌注薄砂漿（一種稀薄的砂漿或粘合劑）將鋼筋與混凝土粘結(jié)在一起。另一種（更常用的）方法是將預應力鋼筋置于按成品結(jié)構(gòu)的形狀設置的模板的較低部位，然后將混凝土倒入（模板）而包圍著鋼筋。預應力混凝土使用了較少的鋼筋和混凝土，由于它是如此的經(jīng)濟，因此是一種非常理想的材

34、料。Prestressed concrete has made it possible to develop（建造） buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern sports arenas, with large space unbroken by any obstructing supports（阻礙的支撐物）. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed（不斷地擴大）.預應力混凝土使建造獨特形狀的建筑物成為

35、可能，象一些現(xiàn)代的運動場，它具有不受任何支撐物阻擋視線的大空間。這種較新的結(jié)構(gòu)方法的使用正在不斷地被擴大。The current tendency is to develop（采用） lighter materials, aluminum, for example, weighs much less than steel but has many of the same properties. Aluminum beams have already been used for bridge construction and for the framework of a few building

36、s.目前的趨勢是采用較輕的材料。例如，鋁的重量比鋼輕得多，但具有很多相同的性能。鋁材梁已經(jīng)用于橋梁建筑和一些建筑的框架。Lightweight concretes, another example, are now rapidly developing（發(fā)展） throughout the world. They are used for their thermal insulation(絕熱性). The three types are illustrated below（舉例說明如下）: (a) Concretes made with lightweight aggregates; (b)

37、 Aerated concretes (US gas concretes) foamed（起泡） by whisking（攪拌）or by some chemical process during casting; (c) No-fines concretes.另一個例子是輕質(zhì)混凝土，如今已在全世界快速地發(fā)展，因它們的絕熱性而被采用，其三種類型舉例說明如下：(a)輕質(zhì)骨料制成的混凝土；(b)通過澆筑時攪拌或一些化學方法起泡而成的加氣混凝土（US加氣混凝土）；(c)無細骨料混凝土。All three types are used for their insulating properties（絕

38、熱性）, mainly in housing, where they give high（非常） comfort in cold climates and a low cost of cooling（降溫成本）in hot climates. In housing, the relative weakness of lightweight concrete walls is unimportant, but it matters（有重大關系） in roof slabs, floor slabs and beams.這三種類型的混凝土都是由于它們的絕熱性而被使用，主要用于房屋，使其在寒冷的氣候

39、中非常舒服，在炎熱的氣候中降溫的成本不高。在房屋中，墻采用較薄弱的輕質(zhì)混凝土不重要，但是屋面板、樓面板和梁（采用輕質(zhì)混凝土）則有重大關系。In some locations, some lightweight aggregates cost little more than（幾乎等于） the best dense（致密） aggregates and a large number of （大量） floor slabs have therefore been built of lightweight aggregate concrete purely for its weight savin

40、g, with no thought of（沒考慮） its insulation value.在某些地區(qū)，一些輕質(zhì)骨料的費用幾乎等于最致密的骨料，因此大量的樓面板采用輕骨料混凝土制作純粹是節(jié)約重量，而沒考慮它的絕熱價值。The lightweight aggregate reduces the floor dead load（恒載） by about 20 per cent resulting in（導致）considerable savings in the floor（樓蓋結(jié)構(gòu)） steel in every floor and the roof, as well as in the c

41、olumn steel and (less) in the foundations. One London contractor（承包商）prefers to use lightweight aggregate because it gives him the same weight reduction in the floor slab as the use of hollow tiles, with simpler organization and therefore higher speed and profit. The insulation value of the lightwei

42、ght aggregate is only important in the roof insulation, which is greatly improved（改進）.輕質(zhì)骨料使樓面的恒載減少了約20%，因而大量的節(jié)約了每層樓面以及屋面的樓蓋結(jié)構(gòu)中的鋼材和柱子與基礎中（較少）的鋼材使用量。一位倫敦的承包商寧愿使用輕質(zhì)骨料，因為這使樓面板上減少的重量與用空心磚相同，且組織更簡單，因而速度和利潤更高。輕質(zhì)骨料的絕熱價值只在屋面絕熱時顯得重要，它已被大大地改進了。作業(yè)練習通過兩篇 Reading Materials 的學習，進一步了解建筑材料中最常用的混凝土材料的一些特點、種類和性能等，從而更多

43、地掌握一些專業(yè)詞匯和句法。 教學目標了解構(gòu)件（主要為梁）的設計過程了解單軸應力與多軸應力對失效理論的影響熟悉材料力學中涉及的專業(yè)詞匯熟悉科技類文獻常用句型熟悉in general、usually、frequently的不同含義與 be referred to as、be known as、that is、be defined as、in other words 等的用法Introduction 介紹Mechanics of Materials deals with（研究）the response of various bodies, usually called members（構(gòu)件）, to

44、 applied forces（施加力）. In Mechanics of Engineering Materials the members have shapes that either exist in actual structures or are being considered for their suitability（根據(jù)其需要）as parts of proposed（擬建的）engineering structures. The materials in the members have properties that are characteristic of comm

45、only used（常用的）engineering materials such as steel, aluminum, concrete, and wood.材料力學用以研究不同物體（通常稱為構(gòu)件）對施加力的響應。在工程材料力學中，構(gòu)件的形狀可以是實際結(jié)構(gòu)中存在的，也可以根據(jù)其需要而進行考慮（設計），作為擬建工程結(jié)構(gòu)的部件。構(gòu)件中材料的性能即是常用的工程材料如鋼材、鋁材、混凝土和木材的特性。As you can see already from the variety of materials, forces, and shapes mentioned, Mechanics of Engin

46、eering Materials is of interest to（對.有價值）all fields of engineering. The engineer uses the principles of Mechanics of Materials to determine if the material properties and the dimensions of a member are adequate to（足以）ensure that it can carry its loads safely and without excessive distortion. In gene

47、ral（通常）, then, we are interested in both the safe load that a member can carry and the associated（相關的）deformation. Engineering design would be a simple process if the designer could take into consideration（考慮）the loads and the mechanical properties of the materials, manipulate（利用）an equation, and ar

48、rive at（得到）suitable dimensions.Design is seldom that simple. Usually（通常）, on the basis of（根據(jù)）experience, the designer selects a trial（試算） member and then does an analysis to see if that member meets the specified requirements. Frequently（常常）, it does not and then a new trial member is selected and t

49、he analysis repeated. This design cycle（設計周期） continues until a satisfactory solution is obtained. The number of cycles（循環(huán)次數(shù)） required to find an acceptable design diminishes as the designer gains experience.正如你已經(jīng)從提到的各種各樣的材料、力和形狀所看到的，工程材料力學對所有的工程領域都有價值。工程師利用材料力學的原理來確定是否該材料的性能和構(gòu)件尺寸足以保證它能安全地承受荷載且沒有過多的

50、變形。通常，我們關心的是構(gòu)件能承受的安全荷載及其相應的變形。如果設計者能通過考慮荷載和材料的力學性能，并利用公式得到合適的構(gòu)件尺寸，那么工程設計將是一個簡單的過程。然而設計很少那么簡單。通常，根據(jù)經(jīng)驗，設計者選擇一個試算構(gòu)件，然后進行分析，看它是否滿足規(guī)定的要求。它常常不會滿足要求，則再選擇一個新的試算構(gòu)件，再進行分析。這樣的設計不斷重復，直至得到一個滿意的結(jié)果。當設計師擁有一定的經(jīng)驗后，為得到一個可接受的設計所需要的循環(huán)次數(shù)會減少。Design of Axially Loaded Members 軸向力構(gòu)件的設計To give you some insight into （使.有一些了解）t

51、he design cycle, an extremely simple member will be dealt with first. That member is a prismatic bar with a force, P, acting along its longitudinal axis in the direction（縱軸向）such that it tends to elongate the bar. Such a force is referred to as（稱為）an axial tensile load（軸向拉力）, and we can readily imag

52、ine it trying to（努力.）pull the fibers apart and to cause failure on a transverse plane（橫向平面）. It is safe to assume that all fibers of the bar, in regions remote from（遠離）the point of application of the load, are being pulled apart with the same load intensity（荷載強度）. With this assumption, the load inte

53、nsity or stress is uniform on a transverse plane and is given bywhen P is in（以.為單位）Newtons and A is in square metres, stress, ,is in Newtons per square metre (N/m2), which is by definition（根據(jù)定義）Pascals (Pa).為了使你對設計周期有一些了解，首先研究一個非常簡單的構(gòu)件。構(gòu)件是個棱形的桿件，其上沿著它的縱軸向作用一個力P，這樣往往使桿件在該方向上伸長。這樣的力稱為軸向拉力，我們能容易地想象它在努力

54、地將纖維拉開，導致橫向平面的破壞。安全地假定桿件的所有纖維在遠離荷載施加點的區(qū)域以相同的荷載強度被拉開。在此假定下，荷載強度或應力在橫向平面上是均勻的，為當P的單位為牛頓、A的單位為平方米時，應力的單位為牛頓每平方米（N/m2），根據(jù)定義為帕斯卡（Pa）。For a given axial load and given dimensions, the stress can be calculated from (4-1) and compared with（與.相比）the stress that can be safely carried by the material. The safe

55、stress, known as（稱為）the design stress or allowable stress（許用應力）, is determined by tests performed on material made to（按照） the same specifications as the part being considered. A safety factor（安全系數(shù)）,frequently imposed by a legally established code（法規(guī)）, is applied to the strength, as determined by tes

56、ts, to give the allowable stress. The allowable stress, a , is given bywhere f is the stress at which the material fails (failure to be defined later) and n is the safety factor.對已知的軸向力和（構(gòu)件）尺寸，可根據(jù)公式（4-1）計算出應力，并與材料能安全承受的應力作比較。安全應力，稱為設計應力或許用應力，它是通過對材料的試驗來確定的，該（試驗）材料按照與所考慮（驗算）的桿件相同的規(guī)范制作。根據(jù)法規(guī)規(guī)定，通常對試驗所確定

57、的強度考慮安全系數(shù)后得到許用應力。許用應力 a 為這里，f 為材料失效（失效在下文有定義）時的應力，而n為安全系數(shù)。Before approving（核準）trial dimensions, the designer makes certain（確信）that the design is safe by determining that the inequality（不等式）is satisfied. The inequality is usually more convenient in the form不等式常常以更合適的形式出現(xiàn)，即在核準試算的尺寸之前，設計者通過確定不等式成立而確信設計

58、的安全，即It might at first（起先）seem that the designer would always dimension（選定.的尺寸）the cross section（橫截面） so that the stress would exactly equal the allowable stress. However, it may be very costly to produce parts that have nonstandard sizes, so it is usually more economical to waste some material by s

59、electing the next（接近的）larger standard size above that required by the allowable stress. Departure from（背離）standard sizes is justified（合理的） in cases where the penalty（不利后果）for excess weight is very severe, as in aircraft（航天器）or space-ship（宇宙飛船）design.起先似乎設計者總是在選定橫截面的尺寸，以使應力恰好等于許用應力。但是，生產(chǎn)非標準尺寸部件的成本可能很

60、高，因此，通常人們會選擇比按許用應力要求的尺寸大一些的標準尺寸部件，這樣盡管浪費了一些材料，但總體上更經(jīng)濟。但不選擇標準尺寸的做法在諸如航天器和宇宙飛船的設計中證明是合理的，因為多余重量產(chǎn)生的不利后果是很嚴重的。 Design of Beams 梁的設計Up to this point（至此）we have looked at（考慮）the beam problem as a problem in analysis; that is（即）, for a given set of loads, span, and cross section we have been calculating th