英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)-新編簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程筆記-必備

1、Chapter one Introduction 一、定義 1.語(yǔ)言學(xué)Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.語(yǔ)言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicat

2、ion. 語(yǔ)言是人類用來(lái)交際的任意性的有聲符號(hào)體系。 4.識(shí)別特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 語(yǔ)言識(shí)別特征是指人類語(yǔ)言區(qū)別與其他任何動(dòng)物的交際體系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多產(chǎn)性 Duality雙重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化傳遞 arbitrariness Th

3、ere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. Duality Language i

4、s a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of

5、 any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.語(yǔ)言能力Competence Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用performance Performance i

6、s the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用是所掌握的規(guī)則在語(yǔ)言交際中的體現(xiàn)。 7.歷時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué)Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共

7、時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué)Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.語(yǔ)言langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.言語(yǔ)parole The realization of langue in actual use. 11.規(guī)定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people

8、what they should say and what should not say. 12.描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 二、知識(shí)點(diǎn) 1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, its a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 語(yǔ)言不是一種孤立的現(xiàn)象，而是人類在一定的社會(huì)環(huán)境下進(jìn)行的一

9、種社會(huì)活動(dòng)。 2.幾種觀點(diǎn)和現(xiàn)象的提出者： 瑞士語(yǔ)言學(xué)家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure:Langue和parole的區(qū)別 U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家N.Chomsky in1950針對(duì)Saussures langue&parole提出Competence和performance 曾經(jīng)對(duì)語(yǔ)言概念下過定義的語(yǔ)言學(xué)家 Sapir-language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means

10、of voluntarily produced symbols. Hall-language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. Chomsky-from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a

11、 finite set of elements. U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家Charles Hockett 提出了語(yǔ)言的識(shí)別特征design features 3.the word language preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language. Language一詞前不加冠詞說明語(yǔ)言學(xué)家不只研究一種特定的語(yǔ)言。 4.in order to discover the nature of the underly

12、ing language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts. 5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so its hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判斷題 6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in langu

13、ages.最先引起語(yǔ)言學(xué)家注意的是語(yǔ)言的發(fā)音。 三、問答題 1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? Phonetics-its defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, its concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. Phonology-the study of sounds systemsthe inventory of distinctive s

14、ounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Morphology-Its a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntax-its a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics-Its simp

15、ly defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words. Sociolinguisticsthe study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics-the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics-the application of linguisti

16、c principles and theories to language teaching and learning. 2.why do we say language is arbitrary? Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. The fact that different languages have differen

17、t words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, its only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrariness of language is a rose by any other name w

18、ould smell as sweet. 3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)是描述性的，其研究以確實(shí)可靠的、主要以口語(yǔ)形式的資料為基礎(chǔ)。 traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written

19、language. 傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法是規(guī)定性的，研究高級(jí)書面語(yǔ)。 4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic po

20、int of view. 現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)主要是共時(shí)性的，重點(diǎn)研究現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言。除非對(duì)語(yǔ)言的各種狀態(tài)都進(jìn)行成功的研究，否則很難從歷時(shí)性角度對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行描述。 5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings? Speech enjoys for the following reasons: Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution. A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing

21、. speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language. 6.how is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys ? Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the l

22、anguage system for serious study Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 6.the distinction between langue and parole? langue is abstract, re

23、latively stable parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation. 1/ What is linguistics?什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué)？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope of linguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)的研究范疇The

24、study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通語(yǔ)言學(xué))The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系學(xué)）The study of the way in which morphemes are

25、arranged to form words are called morphology. （形態(tài)學(xué)）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法學(xué)）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （語(yǔ)義學(xué)）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （語(yǔ)用學(xué)）The study of language with referenc

26、e to society is called socio-linguistics. （社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)） The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)） But in a narrow sense, applied linguisti

27、cs refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人類語(yǔ)言學(xué)） neurological linguistics, （神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)） mathematical linguistics, （數(shù)字語(yǔ)言學(xué)）and com

28、putational linguistics. （計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)言學(xué)） 3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究中的幾對(duì)基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 規(guī)定與描寫If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say a

29、nd what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.

30、 Synchronic and diachronic 共時(shí)和歷時(shí)The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口頭語(yǔ)與書面語(yǔ)Speech and writing are the t

31、wo major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider ra

32、nge of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. Langue and parole 語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ)The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a spe

33、ech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of

34、 language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. Competence and performance 語(yǔ)言能力和語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in li

35、nguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.Chapter Two Phonology一、定義 1.寬式音標(biāo)Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音標(biāo)Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbo

36、ls and the diacritics. 3.清音Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.濁音Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元音Vowel T

37、he sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. 6.輔音Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are c

38、alled consonants. 7.音位Phoneme The basic unit in phonology, its a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音位變體Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 9.音素phone A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessar

39、ily distinguish meaning, its a speech sound we use when speaking a language. 10.最小對(duì)立對(duì)Minimal pair When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 11.超切分特征Suprasegmental The

40、phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. 12.互補(bǔ)分布complementary distribution P35 Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 13.語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音媒介Phoni

41、c medium of language The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 在人類交際中有著一定意義、對(duì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究來(lái)說舉足輕重。有限的聲音是語(yǔ)音媒介。 14.爆破音stops When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech

42、 sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they areb p t d k g 二、知識(shí)點(diǎn) 1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. 2. o

43、f the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing. 3.Phonetic 組成 Articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)longest established, mostly developed Auditory phonetics 聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué) Acoustic phonetics 聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué) 4.articulatoryApparatus /Organs of Speech Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 Oral . 口腔greatest source of modification of

44、air stream found here Nasal 鼻腔 5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. 6.Obstruction between the back of t

45、he tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation ofk andg,the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd. 7.nasal consonants: m / n / 9. A

46、Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. 10.Sequential rules例子 If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: the first phoneme must be /s/ the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or

47、 /w 11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone三、問答題 1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound? Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how t

48、hey differ. Auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. 發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)描述了我們的發(fā)音器官如何發(fā)出語(yǔ)音，以及這些語(yǔ)音為何有所

49、不同。 聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究語(yǔ)音的物理性質(zhì)，得出了重要結(jié)論，即語(yǔ)音同一只是理論上的理想。 聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究語(yǔ)音的物理性質(zhì)，研究語(yǔ)音從說話者到聽話者之間的傳播方式。 2.how are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation and By manner of articulation 3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different

50、 between sayiandi,p andph,a phonetician or a philologist? why? 語(yǔ)音學(xué)和音位學(xué)的研究中心有何不同?語(yǔ)音學(xué)家和音位學(xué)家哪一個(gè)更關(guān)心清晰音的區(qū)別?為什么? Phonetics description of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetici

51、an would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning. 4.whats a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phonea speech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound features, a phonologica

52、l unit. Allophones-actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. 5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?為什么區(qū)分最小對(duì)立組在一種語(yǔ)言中非常重要? Minimal pairtwo sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element tha

53、t occurs in the same position. 除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個(gè)語(yǔ)音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個(gè)語(yǔ)音組合. Minimal seta group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一組具有上述特征的語(yǔ)音組合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通過分析一種語(yǔ)言的最小對(duì)立對(duì)或最小對(duì)立組,音位學(xué)家能辨別出它的音位. 6.Explain w

54、ith examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcriptionone letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcriptiondiacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. 7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the

55、deletion rule. 有序規(guī)則Sequential rules Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化規(guī)則Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略規(guī)則Deletion rule Its a phonologic

56、al rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.Chapter Three Morphology一、定義 1.詞素Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2.自由詞素Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can

57、 be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏著詞素Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. 4.詞根Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total l

58、oss of identity. 5.詞綴Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 6.曲折詞綴inflectional affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. 7.派生詞綴Derivat

59、ional affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. 8.詞干Stem A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 9.形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則Morphological rules They

60、are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 10.前綴Prefix Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes be- and en(m)- 11.后綴Suffix Suffixes are added to the end of stem