土木工程-英文翻譯-高層結(jié)構(gòu)與鋼結(jié)構(gòu)

1、外文原文:Talling building and Steel constructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structura

2、l steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the

3、 result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.a

4、nd other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore

5、require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbe

6、rs of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems wi

7、th a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior c

8、olumns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a

9、tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used

10、for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New YorkColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building

11、can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much

12、steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sea

13、rs Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at

14、a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the worlds tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes

15、 the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free inter

16、ior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin fag ade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cos

17、t of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in c

18、oncrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the fi

19、rst framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Anoth

20、er system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2

21、), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the worlds present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and

22、 steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems.

23、 The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the fo

24、rm of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.

25、Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were stud

26、ied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques

27、 for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compres

28、sion members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 18

29、19 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construct

30、ion-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, wh

31、ich are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled f

32、or the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the wa

33、y to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notabl

34、e example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diamete

35、r and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value

36、of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophistica

37、ted analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.

38、for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few

39、months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney s beams were of Bessemer steel, though

40、his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 offi

41、ce buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at eac

42、h floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 1

43、9th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shap

44、e produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889.

45、The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Bui

46、lding) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limi

47、t street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in

48、 greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With todays modern interior lighting sys tems, however, diagonal bracing against

49、 wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structures facade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1

50、920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The Empi re States 102 stories (1,250ft. 381m) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the n

51、ew construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other

52、material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction developm

53、ent, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construc

54、tion was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different typ

55、es of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The

56、introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.高層結(jié)構(gòu)與鋼結(jié)構(gòu)近年來(lái)，盡管一般的建筑結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)取得了很大的進(jìn)步，但是取得顯著成績(jī)的還要屬超高層建 筑結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)。最初的高層建筑設(shè)計(jì)是從鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的設(shè)計(jì)開(kāi)始的。鋼筋混凝土和受力外包鋼筒系統(tǒng)運(yùn)用起來(lái)是 比較經(jīng)濟(jì)的系統(tǒng)，被有效地運(yùn)用于大批的民用建筑和商業(yè)建筑中。50層到100層的建筑被定義 為超高層建筑。而這種建筑在美國(guó)得廣泛的應(yīng)用是由于新的結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展和創(chuàng)新。這樣的高度需要增大柱和梁的尺寸

57、，這樣以來(lái)可以使建筑物更加堅(jiān)固以至于在允許的限度范 圍內(nèi)承受風(fēng)荷載而不產(chǎn)生彎曲和傾斜。過(guò)分的傾斜會(huì)導(dǎo)致建筑的隔離構(gòu)件、頂棚以及其他建筑細(xì) 部產(chǎn)生循環(huán)破壞。除此之外，過(guò)大的搖動(dòng)也會(huì)使建筑的使用者們因感覺(jué)到這樣的的晃動(dòng)而產(chǎn)生不 舒服的感覺(jué)。無(wú)論是鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)還是鋼結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)都充分利用了整個(gè)建筑的剛度潛力，因 此不能指望利用多余的剛度來(lái)限制側(cè)向位移。在鋼結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)中，經(jīng)濟(jì)預(yù)算是根據(jù)每平方英寸地板面積上的鋼材的數(shù)量確定的。圖示1 中的曲線A顯示了常規(guī)框架的平均單位的重量隨著樓層數(shù)的增加而增加的情況。而曲線B顯示 則顯示的是在框架被保護(hù)而不受任何側(cè)向荷載的情況下的鋼材的平均重量。上界和下界之間的區(qū)

58、 域顯示的是傳統(tǒng)梁柱框架的造價(jià)隨高度而變化的情況。而結(jié)構(gòu)工程師改進(jìn)結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的目的就是減 少這部分造價(jià)。鋼結(jié)構(gòu)中的體系：鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的高層建筑的發(fā)展是幾種結(jié)構(gòu)體系創(chuàng)新的結(jié)果。這些創(chuàng)新的結(jié)構(gòu)已 經(jīng)被廣泛地應(yīng)用于辦公大樓和公寓建筑中。剛性帶式桁架的框架結(jié)構(gòu)：為了聯(lián)系框架結(jié)構(gòu)的外柱和內(nèi)部帶式桁架，可以在建筑物的中間 和頂部設(shè)置剛性帶式桁架。1974年在米望基建造的威斯康森銀行大樓就是一個(gè)很好的例子?？蚣芡步Y(jié)構(gòu)：如果所有的構(gòu)件都用某種方式互相聯(lián)系在一起，整個(gè)建筑就像是從地面發(fā)射 出的一個(gè)空心筒體或是一個(gè)剛性盒子一樣。這個(gè)時(shí)候此高層建筑的整個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)抵抗風(fēng)荷載的所有強(qiáng) 度和剛度將達(dá)到最大的效率。這種特殊的結(jié)構(gòu)體系首

59、次被芝加哥的43層鋼筋混凝土的德威特紅 棕色的公寓大樓所采用。但是這種結(jié)構(gòu)體系的的所有應(yīng)用中最引人注目的還要屬在紐約建造的 100層的雙筒結(jié)構(gòu)的世界貿(mào)易中心大廈。斜撐桁架筒體：建筑物的外柱可以彼此獨(dú)立的間隔布置，也可以借助于通過(guò)梁柱中心線的 交叉的斜撐構(gòu)件聯(lián)系在一起，形成一個(gè)共同工作的筒體結(jié)構(gòu)。這種高度的結(jié)構(gòu)體系首次被芝加哥 的John Hancock中心大廈采用。這項(xiàng)工程所耗用的剛才量與傳統(tǒng)的四十層高樓的用鋼量相當(dāng)。筒體：隨著對(duì)更高層建筑的要求不斷地增大。筒體結(jié)構(gòu)和斜撐桁架筒體被設(shè)計(jì)成捆束狀以 形成更大的筒體來(lái)保持建筑物的高效能。芝加哥的110層的Sears Roebuck總部大樓有9個(gè)筒體

60、， 從基礎(chǔ)開(kāi)始分成三個(gè)部分。這些獨(dú)立筒體中的終端處在不同高度的建筑體中，這充分體現(xiàn)出了這 種新式結(jié)構(gòu)觀念的建筑風(fēng)格自由化的潛能。這座建筑物1450英尺（442米）高，是世界上最高 的大廈。薄殼筒體系統(tǒng)：這種筒體結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)是為了增強(qiáng)超高層建筑抵抗側(cè)力的能力（風(fēng)荷載和 地震荷載）以及建筑的抗側(cè)移能力。薄殼筒體是筒體系統(tǒng)的又一大飛躍。薄殼筒體的進(jìn)步是利用 高層建筑的正面（墻體和板）作為與筒體共同作用的結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)件，為高層建筑抵抗側(cè)向荷載提供了 一個(gè)有效的途徑，而且可獲得不用設(shè)柱，成本較低，使用面積與建筑面積之比又大的室內(nèi)空間。由于薄殼立面的貢獻(xiàn)，整個(gè)框架筒的構(gòu)件無(wú)需過(guò)大的質(zhì)量。這樣以來(lái)使得結(jié)構(gòu)既輕巧