托福閱讀段落組織結(jié)構(gòu)

歡迎閱讀本文檔，希望本文檔能對(duì)您有所幫助！歡迎閱讀本文檔，希望本文檔能對(duì)您有所幫助！感謝閱讀本文檔，希望本文檔能對(duì)您有所幫助！感謝閱讀本文檔，希望本文檔能對(duì)您有所幫助！歡迎閱讀本文檔，希望本文檔能對(duì)您有所幫助！感謝閱讀本文檔，希望本文檔能對(duì)您有所幫助！托福閱讀---段落內(nèi)容的組織結(jié)構(gòu)近幾年的托福閱讀文章難度逐步增大，這種難度主要體現(xiàn)在四方面：詞匯，句式，銜接和篇章。在同學(xué)們攻克了詞匯和語(yǔ)法關(guān)后，就要學(xué)會(huì)從宏觀上來(lái)把控文章，所以今天我們就銜接方面的內(nèi)容和大家進(jìn)行探討。銜接主要是段落內(nèi)部及段落之間通過(guò)何種方式進(jìn)行語(yǔ)義連接。我們今天通過(guò)借鑒官方指南書(shū)中的文章來(lái)基本了解段落內(nèi)部的組織結(jié)構(gòu)。1分類(lèi)式（classification） 例子Manypeoplehavetocommunicateandworkwithmembersofothercultures,andsocialskillstrainingisnowbeinggiventosomeofthesewhoareabouttoworkabroad.Interculturalcommunicationisnecessaryforseveralkindsofpeople.Touristsareprobablythelargestgroup,thoughtheystayfortheshortestperiodsandneedtomasteronlyafewsimplesituations…這個(gè)段落是典型的分類(lèi)式寫(xiě)法，把需要進(jìn)行跨文化交流的人分成幾類(lèi)，接下來(lái)分別描述，首當(dāng)其沖的就是旅游者。官方指南1）

Desertificationisaccomplishedprimarythroughthelossofstabilizingnaturalvegetationandthesubsequentacceleratederosionofsoilbywindandwater.(P)Insomecasestheloosesoilisblowncompletelyaway,leavingastonysurface.Inothercases,thefinerparticlesmayberemoved,whilethesand-sizedparticlesareaccumulatedtoformmobilehillsorridgeofsand.(I)這段內(nèi)容是一個(gè)典型的總分結(jié)構(gòu)，即point+illustration。觀點(diǎn)很明顯是說(shuō)沙漠化的原因是植被消失，土壤侵蝕。接下來(lái)的論證時(shí)進(jìn)一步補(bǔ)充說(shuō)明植被消失之后，土壤可能會(huì)碰到的狀況，分成了兩種情況。一種情況松散的土壤完全被吹走，還有一種情況小顆粒被帶走，沙子大小的顆粒聚集成沙山，進(jìn)而逐步累積形成沙漠化。2）

Expandingpopulationsaresubjectingthelandtoincreasingpressuretoprovidethemwithlandandfuel.(P)Inwetperiods,thelandmaybeabletorespondtothesestresses.Duringthedryperiodsthatarecommonphenomenonalongthedesertmargins,thepressureonthelandisoftenfarinexcessofitsdiminishedcapacityto,anddesertificationresults.(I)這個(gè)段落同樣講沙漠化的原因，內(nèi)部也是總分結(jié)構(gòu)，說(shuō)的是人變多，土地的壓力增大這個(gè)原因。然后分情況強(qiáng)化論點(diǎn)，天氣濕潤(rùn)還行；天氣干燥，土地就沒(méi)法處理這種人口壓力，會(huì)導(dǎo)致沙漠化。3）

Fourspecificactivitieshavebeenidentifiedasmajorcontributorstothedesertificationprocesses:overcultivation,overgrazing,firewoodgatheringandoverirrigation.文章之后則是分別闡述每一個(gè)活動(dòng)為什么造成沙漠化。其他信號(hào)詞總結(jié)：Categories;classification;groups;parts;types;characteristics;elements;kinds;sorts;ways;classes2比較對(duì)比式（ComparisonandContrast）比較式ElephantsarethebiggestlandcreaturesonEarth,andamongthesmartestandmostendearing.Intheirlivesandsocialdynamicstheyresemblehumansinmanyways.文章開(kāi)頭談到resemble，表明之后的文章會(huì)把大象同人作比較。其他信號(hào)詞總結(jié)：compare,like/alike,resembles,incomparison,likewise,similar,inthesameway/manner,parallels,similarly官方指南TheseKinetoscopearcadesweremodeledonphonographparlors,whichhadprovensuccessfulforEdisonseveralyearsearlier.Inthephonographparlors…TheKinetoscopeparlorfunctionedinasimilarway.很明顯這里是比較式寫(xiě)法，愛(ài)迪生同志所發(fā)明的K機(jī)器（用于早期的peepshow當(dāng)中的機(jī)器）的建造模型是留聲機(jī)。對(duì)比式Longlumpedtogetherbyordinaryfolksandscholarsalike,envyandjealousyarenotasingle,formless“superemotion”.Onthecontrary,theyaredistinct,withdifferentcomponents,andareinfactelicitedbycompletelydifferentsituationsandincompletelydifferentsettings.（P）AccordingtoaGeorgetownUniversitypsychologist…envyoccurswhenapersonlacksanotherperson’ssuperiorquality,achievement,orpossession,anddesiresit---orwishesthattheotherpersonlackedit.Jealousy,bycontrast,occursinthecontextofacloserelationshipwhenapersonfearslosinganimportantthingtoarival---inparticular,losingarelationshipthatisimportanttoone’ssenseofself.Jealousy,bycontrast,occursinthecontextofacloserelationshipwhenapersonfearslosinganimportantthingtoarival---inparticular,losingarelationshipthatisimportanttoone’ssenseofself.這一小段文章的topic是jealousy和envy兩詞的區(qū)別。然后進(jìn)行對(duì)比論證，同時(shí)輔以舉例論證。舉例十分的形象。以后我們就知道了，當(dāng)我們和男朋友討論戀愛(ài)史時(shí)，他如果滿(mǎn)臉笑容的談到說(shuō)他的上一任是劉亦菲時(shí)，你的內(nèi)心很有可能會(huì)同時(shí)經(jīng)歷兩種情感。你嫉妒（envy）那個(gè)前女友，那么純潔美麗；同時(shí)你更嫉妒（jealous）他的一臉笑容，那滿(mǎn)足的神情，因?yàn)槟阌X(jué)得這可能會(huì)破壞你們的戀愛(ài)關(guān)系。其他信號(hào)詞總結(jié)：Although,however,ontheotherhand,asopposedto,incontrastto,ratherthan,but,instead,unlike,conversely,nevertheless,whereas,difference,onthecontrary,yet,different官方指南1Withtheadventofprojectionin1895-1896,motionpicturesbecametheultimateformofconsumption.Previously,largeaudiencehadviewedspectaclesatthetheatre.Butthemoviedifferedsignificantlyfromtheseotherformsofentertainment,whichdependedoneitherliveperformanceorinthecaseofslide-and-lanternshowstheactiveinvolvementofamasterceremonieswhoassembledtofinalprogram.本文是在講投影技術(shù)出現(xiàn)之后，電影成了消費(fèi)形式。之后的論證部分通過(guò)對(duì)比指出電影的本質(zhì)是不需要現(xiàn)場(chǎng)演出或者是大師的積極參與。2Butresearchfindingsontheusefulnessofcatharsisaremixed.Somestudiessuggestthatcatharsisleadstoreductionintensionandaloweredlikelihoodoffutureaggression.Otherstudies,however,suggestthatlettingsomesteamactuallyencouragesmoreaggressionlateron.探討的是catharsis（瀉藥）的用途，當(dāng)然實(shí)際是指發(fā)泄（ventaggression）的效用。這一小段內(nèi)部大方向上說(shuō)是分類(lèi)結(jié)構(gòu)，不過(guò)這個(gè)分類(lèi)的實(shí)質(zhì)是正反對(duì)比的兩種理論：一些認(rèn)為發(fā)泄會(huì)減少緊張，另一些認(rèn)為會(huì)進(jìn)一步鼓勵(lì)攻擊性行為。3Before1815manufacturingintheUnitedStateshadbeendoneinhomesorshopsbyskilledartisans…After1815thisolderformofmanufacturingbegantogivewaytofactorieswithmachinerytendedbyunskilledorsemiskilledlaborers.這一小段是以1815作為分界線(xiàn)，來(lái)吧生產(chǎn)形式作一個(gè)對(duì)比，之前是手工，之后是機(jī)器。3舉例子（Example）托福閱讀的文章科普性比較重，所以例子基本以科學(xué)研究為主。官方指南例子一Cognitivepsychologistsassertthatourbehaviorisinfluencedbyourvaluesbythewaysinwhichweinterpretoursituations,andbychoice.Forexample,peoplewhobelievethataggressionisnecessaryandjustifiedarelikelytoactaggressivelywhereas…這個(gè)例子舉了兩組人來(lái)論證我們的價(jià)值觀會(huì)影響我們的行為（攻擊性）。大家可以借鑒學(xué)術(shù)文章舉例子的方式，很少用myneighborJack這樣具體的例子，一般都是泛泛的談，相對(duì)具有說(shuō)服力。例子二Theoristsholdthatinnerconflictsarecrucialforunderstandinghumanbehavior,includingaggression.SigmundFreud,forexample,believedthataggressiveimpulsesareinevitablereactionstothefrustrationsofdailylife…這一段用的是弗洛伊德的例子，本質(zhì)上是科學(xué)研究。結(jié)合例一例二，大家以后寫(xiě)學(xué)術(shù)文章例子的思路就有了，少舉太過(guò)個(gè)人的例子，可以側(cè)重整體概念和名人例子。例子三Sociobiologyviewsmushsocialbehavior,includingaggressivebehavior,asgeneticallydetermined.ConsiderDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Darwinheldthat…這一段要表明攻擊行為性是基因決定的，之后引入達(dá)爾文進(jìn)化論，本質(zhì)上還是科學(xué)研究。模擬試題1Severalstudieshowthatgettingfewerthansixhoursofsleepanightcanimpairshort-termmemory,coordination,reactiontime,andjudgment.Inonestudyofdrivers,researchersreportedthatsleepdeprivationhassomeofthesamehazardouseffectsasbeingdrunk…這一段是要來(lái)說(shuō)明缺乏睡眠對(duì)人體可能會(huì)產(chǎn)生的影響，然后通過(guò)引入以駕駛員作為主體的例子來(lái)論證。2However,nomeasureofearlyfamilyenvironmentorearly-adultcompetenceremainedasignificantpredictorofpsychologicalwellbeingattheendofmiddleage.Onestudyofmenrevealedthatattheageof65,therewerenochildhoodorearly-adulthoodcharacteristicsthatdistinguishedbetweenmenwhohadturnedoutwellandthosewhohadnot.However,whatdidpredictsuccessandwellbeingattheageof65wastheman’shealthandadjustmentatmidlife.這篇文章講生活幸福感。這一段的觀點(diǎn)是家庭因素對(duì)于中年男人而言就不是那么重要了。什么才重要？文中指出是你中年時(shí)的抉擇決定你之后生活是否幸福的。這一觀點(diǎn)可以馬上運(yùn)用到SAT的寫(xiě)作中，Isidentitysomethingyouarebornwithorsomethingyoucreateforyourself?或者是雅思作文中對(duì)于nature（先天因素）和nurture（后天培育）哪個(gè)更重要的問(wèn)題的討論信號(hào)詞總結(jié)：forexample,forinstance,toillustrate,specifically,suchas實(shí)驗(yàn)論證是學(xué)術(shù)文章（比如雅思考試）中間段落論證的殺手锏，這里給大家提供一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的對(duì)比試驗(yàn)，供大家參考來(lái)論證你的觀點(diǎn)。AnexperimentcarriedoutbyJapaneseCentralEducationalAgencyexploresstudents’performancesinrelationtoteachers’encouragement,andrevealedthatstudentswhogetpraise,evenoverrated,performbetterthanthosewhodon’tgetpraises.Anumberoffiftystudentsaredividedintotwogroups.Inonegroup,theteacherusesconservativemethodtoteach,studentsgetonlyconservativepraiseiftheyperformedgood,andwillbecriticizediftheymademistakes.Inanothergroup,thestudentsarehighlypraisedifwellperformed,andwillstillgetencouragementiftheymademistakes.Theyoverallperformancewastestedthroughastandardizedexaminationattheendoftwomonths.Thegroupofstudentswhogetpraisescored15percenthigherthantheothergroup.Suchanexperimentfurtherprovedthatencouragement,evenoverrated,willhaveapositiveeffectonpeople.4因果論證(causeandeffect)例子一Evenintheareasthatretainasoilcover,thereductionofvegetationtypicallyresultsinthelossofthesoil’sabilitytoabsorbsubstantialquantitiesofwater.Theimpactofraindropsontheloosesoiltendstotransferfineclayparticlesintothetiniestsoilspaces,sealingthemandproducingasurfacethatallowsverylittlewaterpenetration.Waterabsorptionisgreatlyreduced;consequentlyrunoffisincreased,resultinginacceleratederosionrates.Thegradualdryingofthesoilcausedbyitsdiminishedabilitytoabsorbwaterresultsinthefurtherlossofvegetation,sothatacycleofprogressivesurfacedeteriorationisestablished.這是一個(gè)非常漂亮的因果鏈論證觀點(diǎn)的段落，值得背誦，它的邏輯關(guān)系如下。P:即使在有土壤覆蓋的地方，植被減少也會(huì)導(dǎo)致土壤吸水能力下降。為什么呢？雨水打在松散的土壤上---移走密封小粘土顆粒（粘土可以大量吸水）---產(chǎn)生一個(gè)不能讓水進(jìn)入的表面---結(jié)果是流出的水變多---進(jìn)一步導(dǎo)致土壤被水侵蝕；同時(shí)土地吸水能力不足---土地干