英語專業(yè)考研語言學(xué)復(fù)習(xí)資料

英語專業(yè)考研語言學(xué)復(fù)習(xí)資料主要內(nèi)容第一部分胡壯麟《語言學(xué)教程》第一章《語言學(xué)教程》各章節(jié)提綱筆記第二章《語言學(xué)教程》重難點學(xué)習(xí)提示第三章《語言學(xué)教程》（修訂版）測試題第四章《語言學(xué)教程》課后答案第五章胡壯麟的語言學(xué)術(shù)語英漢對照翻譯表第二部分戴煒棟《簡明語言學(xué)教程》第三部分語言學(xué)試題集錦精華第一部分胡壯麟《語言學(xué)教程》第一章《語言學(xué)教程》各章節(jié)提綱筆記Chapter1InvitationstoLinguisticsWhystudylanguage?Languageisveryessentialtohumanbeings.Inlanguagetherearemanythingsweshouldknow.Forfurtherunderstanding,weneedtostudylanguagescientifically.Whatislanguage?Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.DesignfeaturesoflanguageThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.ArbitrarinessArbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings.DualityDualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.CreativityCreativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.DisplacementDisplacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofconversation.OriginoflanguageThebow-wowtheoryInprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.Thepooh-poohtheoryInthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpains,angerandjoywhichgraduallydevelopedintolanguage.Thet4yo-he-ho^^theoryAsprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.FunctionsoflanguageAsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:Referential:toconveymessageandinformation;Poetic:toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake;Emotive:toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;Conative:topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties;Phatic:toestablishcommunionwithothers;Metalingual:toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.Halliday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthatlanguagehasthreemetafunctions:Ideationalfunction:toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer;Interpersonalfunction:embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships;Textualfunction:referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:InformativeTheinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.InterpersonalfunctionTheinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.PerformativeTheperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.EmotivefunctionTheemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.PhaticcommunionThephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.RecreationalfunctionTherecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy'sbabblingorachanter'schanting.MetalingualfunctionThemetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword"book"totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression"thewordbook''totalkaboutthesign"b-o-o-k''itself.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.MainbranchesoflinguisticsPhoneticsPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.PhonologyPhonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.MorphologyMorphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning一morphemesandword-formationprocesses.SyntaxSyntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.SemanticsSemanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.PragmaticsPragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,distinctfrommicrolinguistics,whichdealtsolelywiththeformalaspectoflanguagesystem.PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.SociolinguisticsSociolinguisticsisatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthelanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.AnthropologicallinguisticsAnthropologicallinguisticsstudiestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureinacommunity.ComputationallinguisticsComputationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptivevs.prescriptiveTosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.Forexample,4tDon9tsayX."isaprescriptivecommand;"Peopledon'tsayX."isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18lhcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.However,modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.Synchronicvs.diachronicAsynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure'sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare'stimewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstateofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Langue&paroleSaussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.CompetenceandperformanceAccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser'sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker'scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker'sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Chomsky'scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure'slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.Eticvs.emic[Thesetwotermsarestillveryvaguetome.AfterIreadJiDaohong'sbook,Icanunderstandthembetter,butbecausetheyarevaguelymentionedinHu'sbook,itseemsverydifficultformetounderstandthemfully.一icywarmtea]Beingeticmeansresearchers'makingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviorallyandinconsequential,differentiations,justasoftenthecasewithphoneticsvs.phonemicsanalysisinlinguisticsproper.Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunityratherthanviaappealtotheinvestigator'singenuityorintuitionalone.Followingthesuffixformationsof(phon)eticsvs(phon)emics,thesetermswereintroducedintothesocialsciencesbyKennethPike(1967)todenotethedistinctionbetweenthematerialandfunctionalstudyoflanguage:phoneticsstudiestheacousticallymeasurableandarticulatorilydefinableimmediatesoundutterances,whereasphonemicsanalyzesthespecificselectioneachlanguagemakesfromthatuniversalcataloguefromafunctionalaspect.Chapter2SpeechSoundsSpeechproductionandperceptionPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:Articulatoryphonetics-thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics-thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechAuditoryphonetics-thestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.SpeechorgansSpeechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:theinitiatoroftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscriptionSegmentsanddivergencesAstherearemoresoundsinEnglishthanitsletters,eachlettermustrepresentmorethanonesound.PhonetictranscriptionInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA):thesystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistsoflettersanddiacritics.SomelettersaretakenfromtheRomanalphabet,somearespecialsymbols.ConsonantsConsonantsandvowelsAconsonantisproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Avowelisproducedwithoutobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.ConsonantsThecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract(mannerofarticulation);whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionoftheair(placeofarticulation).MannersofarticulationStop/plosive:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbystoppingtheairstreamfromthelungsandthensuddenlyreleasingit.InEnglish,[□(9<QS?㈤ユ￠9 %]arestopsand[〇由)■&S]arenasalstops.Fricative:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbyallowingtheairstreamfromthelungstoescapewithfriction.Thisiscausedbybringingthetwoarticulators,e.g.theupperteethandthelowerlip,closetogetherbutnotclosesenoughtostoptheairstreamscompletely.InEnglish,や4?03?自我?b?分舊arefricatives.(Median)approximant:Anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.InEnglishthisclassofsoundsincludesロ?er].Lateral(approximant):Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbypartiallyblockingtheairstreamfromthelungs,usuallybythetongue,butlettingitescapeatoneorbothsidesoftheblockage.[?]istheonlylateralinEnglish.Otherconsonantalarticulationsincludetrill,taporflap,andaffricate.PlacesofarticulationBilabial:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwolips.Labiodental:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth.Dental:Aspeechsoundwhichismadebythetonguetiporbladeandtheupperfrontteeth.Alveolar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge.Postalveolar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.Retroflex:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporbladecurledbacksothattheundersideofthetonguetiporbladeformsastricturewiththebackofthealveolarridgeorthehardpalate.Palatal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate.Velar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.Uvula亡Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula,theshortprojectionofthesofttissueandmuscleattheposteriorendofthevelum.Pharyngeal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththerootofthetongueandthewallsofthepharynx.Glottal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwopiecesofvocalfoldspushedtowardseachother.TheconsonantsofEnglishReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEnglishpronunciationwhichhasbeenregardedastheprestigevarietyandwhichshowsnoregionalvariation.Ithasoftenbeenpopularlyreferredtoas“BBCEnglish,,or“OxfordEnglish^^becauseitiswidelyusedintheprivatesectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.AchartofEnglishconsonantsMannerofarticulationPlaceofarticulationBilabialLabiodentalDentalAlveolarPost-alveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStopロSt?a切ッNasal〇■sFricativeブ??*?我b守Approximant□erLateral■Affricate?す◎守Inmanycasestherearetwosoundsthatsharethesameplaceandmannerofarticulation.Thesepairsofconsonantsaredistinguishedbyvoicing,theoneappearingontheleftisvoicelessandtheoneontherightisvoiced.Therefore,theconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingway:[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolarfricative[m]bilabialnasal[n]alveolarnasal[I]alveolarlateral[j]palatalapproximant[h]glottalfricative[r]alveolarapproximantVowelsThecriteriaofvoweldescriptionThepartofthetonguethatisraised-front,center,orback.Theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate.Normally,threeorfourdegreesarerecognized:high,mid(oftendividedintomid-highandmid-low)andlow.Thekindofopeningmadeatthelips-variousdegreesofliproundingorspreading.Thepositionofthesoftpalate-raisedfororalvowels,andloweredforvowelswhichhavebeennasalized.Thetheoryofcardinalvowels[Icywarmteadoesn'tquiteunderstandthistheory.]Cardinalvowelsareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendingtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.Byconvention,theeightprimarycardinalvowelsarenumberedfromonetoeightasfollows:CV1[M],CV2[IRJ,CV3[G],CV4[S],CV5[も],CV6e],CV7[ロ],CV8[>].Asetofsecondarycardinalvowelsisobtainedbyreversingthelip-roundingforagiveposition:CV9-CV16.[IamsorryIcannottypeoutmanyofthese.Ifyouwanttoknow,youmayconsultthetextbookp.47.一icywarmtea]VowelglidesPure(monophthong)vowels:vowelswhichareproducedwithoutanynoticeablechangeinvowelquality.Vowelglides:Vowelswherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.Diphthong:Avowelwhichisusuallyconsideredasonedistinctivevowelofaparticularlanguagebutreallyinvolvestwovowels,withonevowelglidingtotheother.ThevowelsofRP[XH]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[?]highbacklaxroundedvowel[p]centrallaxunroundedvowel阿lowbacklaxroundedvowelCoarticulationandphonetictranscriptionCoarticulationCoarticulation:Thesimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationoftwosuccessivephonologicalunits.Anticipatorycoarticulation:Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamp,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Perseverativecoarticulation:Ifthesounddisplaystheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,asinthecaseofmap,itisperseverativecoarticulation.Nasalization:Changeorprocessbywhichvowelsorconsonantsbecomenasal.Diacritics:Anymarkinwritingadditionaltoaletterorotherbasicelements.BroadandnarrowtranscriptionsTheuseofasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscriptioniscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Theformerwasmeanttoindicateonlythesesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguagewhilethelatterwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventheminutestshadesofpronunciation.PhonologicalanalysisPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.Ontheotherhand,phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Thereisafairdegreeofoverlapinwhatconcernsthetwosubjects,sosometimesitishardtodrawtheboundarybetweenthem.Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundswhilephonologystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.Thatistosay,phonologyisconcernedwiththelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinhumanlanguages,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.PhonemesandallophonesMinimalpairsMinimalpairsaretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning.E.g.theEnglishwordstieanddieareminimalpairsastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphonemes/t/and/d/.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsofalanguage,aphonologistcanfindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning.ThephonemetheoryAllophonesAphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Anyofthedifferentformsofaphonemeiscalleditsallophones.E.g.inEnglish,whenthephoneme/□/occursatthebeginningofthewordlikepeak./ロ?星切/,itissaidwithalittlepuffofair,itisaspirated.Butwhen/□/occursinthewordlikespeak/?□HQcfe/,itissaidwithoutthepuffoftheair,itisunaspirated.Boththeaspirated[□"]inpeakandtheunaspirated[C=]inspeakhavethesamephonemicfunction,i.e.theyarebothheardandidentifiedas/□/andnotas依/;theyarebothallophonesofthephoneme/ロ/.PhonologicalprocessesAssimilationAssimilation:Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Regressiveassimilation:Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.Progressiveassimilation:Ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,wecallitprogressiveassimilation.Devoicing:Aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.DevoicingofvoicedconsonantsoftenoccursinEnglishwhentheyareattheendofaword.PhonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrulesThechangesinassimilation,nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallphonologicalprocessesinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.Ineachprocessthechangeisconditionedortriggeredbyafollowingsoundor,inthecaseofprogressiveassimilation,aprecedingsound.Consequently,wecansaythatanyphonologicalprocessmusthavethreeaspectstoit:asetofsoundstoundergotheprocess;asetofsoundsproducedbytheprocess;asetofsituationsinwhichtheprocessapplies.Wecanrepresenttheprocessbymansofanarrow:voicedfricativevoiceless/voiceless.Thisisaphonologicalrule.Theslash(/)specifiestheenvironmentinwhichthechangetakesplace.Thebar(calledthefocusbar)indicatesthepositionofthetargetsegment.Sotherulereads:avoicedfricativeistransformedintothecorrespondingvoicelesssoundwhenitappearsbeforeavoicelesssound.Ruleordering[Nomuchtosay,soomitted一icywarmtea]DistinctivefeaturesDistinctivefeature:Aparticularcharacteristicwhichdistinguishesonedistinctivesoundunitofalanguagefromanotheroronegroupofsoundsfromanothergroup.Binaryfeature:Apropertyofaphonemeorawordwhichcanbeusedtodescribethephonemeorword.Abinaryfeatureiseitherpresentorabsent.Binaryfeaturesarealsousedtodescribethesemanticpropertiesofwords.SyllablesSuprasegmentalfeatures:Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllables,stress,tone,andintonation.Syllable:Aunitinspeechwhichisoftenlongerthanonesoundandsmallerthanawholeword.Opensyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinavowel.Closedsyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinaconsonant.Maximalonsetprinciple:Theprinciplewhichstatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.E.g.ThecorrectsyllabificationofthewordcountryshouldbeItshouldn'tbeaccordingtothisprinciple.StressStressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[0]isusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.Chapter3Lexicon3.1Whatisword?1.Whatisalexeme?Alexemeisthesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersimilarunits.Itisanabstractunit.Itcanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittensentences,andisregardedasthesamelexemeevenwheninflected.E.g.thewordisthelexemeofwrite,writes,wrote,writingandwritten.^2.Whatisamorpheme?Amorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.E.g.theword"boxes"hastwomorphemes:"box"and"es,"neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisshapesifwedon'twanttosacrificeitsmeaning.Whatisanallomorph?Anallomorphisthealternateshapesofthesamemorpheme.E.g.thevariantsoftheplurality"-s"makestheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse一mice,ox一oxen,tooth一teeth,etc.Whatisaword?Awordisthesmallestofthelinguisticunitsthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutteranceinspeechorwriting.Threesensesof“word”AphysicallydefinableunitThecommonfactorunderlyingasetofformsAgrammaticalunitIdentificationofwordsStabilityWordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure,i.e.theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordhavelittlepotentialforrearrangement,comparedwiththerelativepositionalmobilityoftheconstituentsofsentencesinthehierarchy.Takethewordchairmanforexample.Ifthemorphemesarerearrangedas*manchair,itisanunacceptablewordinEnglish.RelativeuninterruptibilityByuninterruptibility,wemennewelementsarenottobeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.Nothingistobeinsertedinbetweenthethreepartsoftheworddisappointment:dis+appoint+ment.Norisoneallowedtousepausesbetweenthepartsofaword:*disappointment.AminimumfreeformThiswasfirstsuggestedbyLeonardBloomfield.Headvocatedtreatingsentenceas“themaximumfreeform^^andword"theminimumfreeform,^^thelatterbeingthesmallestunitthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.ClassificationofwordsVariableandinvariablewordsInvariablewords,onecanfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordform;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.E.g.follow一follows-following-followed.Invariablewordsrefertothosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello,etc.Theyhavenoinflectiveendings.GrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsGrammaticalwords,a.k.a.functionwords,expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns,aregrammaticalwords.Lexicalwords,a.k.a.contentwords,havelexicalmeanings,i.e.thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,arelexicalwords.Closed-classwordsandopen-classwordsClosed-classword:Awordthatbelongstotheclosed-classisonewhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Therefore,pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.areallcloseditems.Open-classword:Awordthatbelongstotheopen-classisonewhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbsareallopen-classitems.WordclassThisisclosetothenotionofpartsofspeechintraditionalgrammar.Today,wordclassdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedcategories.Herearesomeofthecategoriesnewlyintroducedintolinguisticanalysis.Particles:Particlesincludeatleasttheinfinitivemarker"fo,"thenegativemarkerandthesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs,suchas-getby,”“do皿M"lookback、"etc.Auxiliaries:Auxiliariesuse