外文參考文獻(xiàn)

（一）BuildingTypesandDesignAbuildingiscloselyboundupwithpeople，foritprovideswiththenecessaryspacetoworkandlivein.

Asclassifiedbytheiruse,buildingsaremainlyoftwotypes:industrialbuildingsandcivilbuildings.industrialbuildingsareusedbyvariousfactoriesorindustrialproductionwhilecivilbuildingsarethosethatareusedbypeoplefordwelling,employment,educationandothersocialactivities.

Industrialbuildingsarefactorybuildingsthatareavailableforprocessingandmanufacturingofvariouskinds,insuchfieldsastheminingindustry,themetallurgicalindustry,machinebuilding,thechemicalindustryandthetextileindustry.factorybuildingscanbeclassifiedintotwotypessingle-storyonesandmulti-storyones.theconstructionofindustrialbuildingsisthesameasthatofcivilbuildings.however,industrialandcivilbuildingsdifferinthematerialsusedandinthewaytheyareused.

Civilbuildingsaredividedintotwobroadcategories:residentialbuildingsandpublicbuildings.residentialbuildingsshouldsuitfamilylife.eachflatshouldconsistofatleastthreenecessaryrooms:alivingroom,akitchenandatoilet.publicbuildingscanbeusedinpolitics,culturalactivities,administrationworkandotherservices,suchasschools,officebuildings,parks,hospitals,shops,stations,theatres,gymnasiums,hotels,exhibitionhalls,bathpools,andsoon.allofthemhavedifferentfunctions,whichinturnrequiredifferentdesigntypesaswell.

Housingisthelivingquartersforhumanbeings.thebasicfunctionofhousingistoprovideshelterfromtheelements,butpeopletodayrequiremuchmorethatoftheirhousing.afamilymovingintoanewneighborhoodwilltoknowiftheavailablehousingmeetsitsstandardsofsafety,health,andcomfort.afamilywillalsoaskhownearthehousingistograinshops,foodmarkets,schools,stores,thelibrary,amovietheater,andthecommunitycenter.

Inthemid-1960’samostimportantvalueinhousingwassufficientspacebothinsideandout.amajorityoffamiliespreferredsingle-familyhomesonabouthalfanacreofland,whichwouldprovidespaceforspare-timeactivities.inhighlyindustrializedcountries,manyfamiliespreferredtoliveasfaroutaspossiblefromthecenterofametropolitanarea,evenifthewageearnershadtotravelsomedistancetotheirwork.quitealargenumberoffamiliespreferredcountryhousingtosuburbanhousingbecausetheirchiefaimwastogetfarawayfromnoise,crowding,andconfusion.theaccessibilityofpublictransportationhadceasedtobeadecisivefactorinhousingbecausemostworkersdrovetheircarstowork.peoplewe’rechieflyinterestedinthearrangementandsizeofroomsandthenumberofbedrooms.

Beforeanyofthebuildingcanbegin,planshavetobedrawntoshowwhatthebuildingwillbelike,theexactplaceinwhichitistogoandhoweverythingistobedone.

Animportantpointinbuildingdesignisthelayoutofrooms,whichshouldprovidethegreatestpossibleconvenienceinrelationtothepurposesforwhichtheyareintended.inadwellinghouse,thelayoutmaybeconsideredunderthreecategories:“day”,“night”,and“services”.attentionmustbepaidtotheprovisionofeasycommunicationbetweentheseareas.the“day“roomsgenerallyincludeadining-room,sitting-roomandkitchen,butotherrooms,suchasastudy,maybeadded,andtheremaybeahall.theliving-room,whichisgenerallythelargest,oftenservesasadining-room,too,orthekitchenmayhaveadiningalcove.the“night“roomsconsistofthebedrooms.the“services“comprisethekitchen,bathrooms,larder,andwater-closets.thekitchenandlarderconnecttheserviceswiththedayrooms.

Itisalsoessentialtoconsiderthequestionofoutlookfromthevariousrooms,andthosemostinuseshouldpreferablyfacesouthaspossible.itis,however,oftenverydifficulttomeettheoptimumrequirements,bothonaccountofthesurroundingsandthelocationoftheroads.inresolvingthesecomplexproblems,itisalsonecessarytofollowthelocaltown-planningregulationswhichareconcernedwithpublicamenities,densityofpopulation,heightofbuildings,proportionofgreenspacetodwellings,buildinglines,thegeneralappearanceofnewpropertiesinrelationtotheneighbourhood,andsoon.

Thereislittlestandardizationinindustrialbuildingsalthoughsuchbuildingsstillneedtocomplywithlocaltown-planningregulations.themoderntrendistowardslight,airyfactorybuildings.generallyofreinforcedconcreteormetalconstruction,afactorycanbegivena“shed”typeridgeroof,incorporatingwindowsfacingnorthsoastogiveevenlydistributednaturallightingwithoutsun-glare.（一）建筑類型、設(shè)計(jì)建筑是息息相關(guān),因?yàn)樗峁┝吮匾目臻g中工作和生活。作為分類使用它們,裝備,建筑類型主要有兩種:工業(yè)與民用建筑工業(yè)建筑被不同廠家生產(chǎn)或工業(yè)民用建筑是那些被人們對(duì)住宅、就業(yè)、教育和其他社會(huì)活動(dòng)。工業(yè)建筑的廠房可供加工制造各類等領(lǐng)域,采礦業(yè)、冶金、機(jī)械制造、化工、紡織行業(yè)。廠房可分為兩種類型的并發(fā)。鋁母鑄造分廠和多層工業(yè)廠房建設(shè)一樣。然而,民用建筑工業(yè)與民用建筑中使用的材料和不同的方式使用它們。民用建筑分為兩大類:住宅和公共建筑.住宅建筑應(yīng)該適合家庭生活每平應(yīng)該包含至少三個(gè)必要的房間:一個(gè)客廳、一個(gè)廚房和衛(wèi)生間依據(jù)建筑可以用在政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)、文化活動(dòng)、行政工作及其他服務(wù),如學(xué)校、寫字樓、公園、醫(yī)院、商店、車站、劇院、健身房、酒店、展覽館、浴水池,等等,他們有不同的功能,這反過來又需要不同類型的設(shè)計(jì)。住房是對(duì)人類生活空間的基本功能,住房是提供庇護(hù)的元素,但今天的人們,他們需要更多的住房之類的家人搬到一個(gè)陌生的地方會(huì)知道可利用的住房滿足其標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的安全、衛(wèi)生、舒適的家庭也會(huì)問為什么之類的住房是糧食附近的商店、食品市場(chǎng)、學(xué)校、商店、圖書館、電影院、社區(qū)中心。在1960中期是最重要的價(jià)值在住房是足夠的空間內(nèi),大多數(shù)家庭優(yōu)先之類的單戶型住宅大約半英畝土地上的土地,這就提供了空間的休閒活動(dòng)。在高度發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家,許多家庭都喜歡住在很遠(yuǎn)的中心城區(qū),即使工薪階層不得不對(duì)他們的工作有一定的距離.quite大量的家庭喜歡鄉(xiāng)下住房的郊區(qū)住房,因?yàn)樗麄兊闹饕繕?biāo)是要遠(yuǎn)離噪音、擁擠、混亂,通暢的公共交通已不再是一個(gè)決定性的因素,因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)工人的住房車開工作感興趣,我們主要超前布置房間的大小和數(shù)目的臥室。在任何一個(gè)建筑可以開始,計(jì)劃必須吸引顯示該建筑將會(huì)像什么,確切的地方去,一切如何去做。很重要的一點(diǎn)是在建筑設(shè)計(jì)的布局,應(yīng)提供房間中最大的方便與用途,他們的目的是在住宅,布局可考慮在三大類:“天”、“夜”、“服務(wù)”.注意必須提供容易溝通,這些地區(qū)的“日”的房間一般包括餐廳、客廳、廚房,但是其他房間,如一個(gè)書房,可能會(huì)增加,可能會(huì)有一個(gè)大廳,起居室,通常是最大的,通常被用來作為餐廳,或廚房用餐,可能會(huì)有一個(gè)壁龕里,“夜間”間臥室中的組成,“服務(wù)”組成的廚房、浴室、貯藏室、電動(dòng)液壓抽水馬桶,廚房和冷連服務(wù)一天的房間。它也是必不可少的,考慮到問題的前景,從各個(gè)房間里最優(yōu)先使用應(yīng)該盡可能地朝南,卻經(jīng)常很難見到的最優(yōu)工藝要求的環(huán)境和位置的道路。在解決這些復(fù)雜的問題,也是必要遵循當(dāng)?shù)爻鞘蟹ㄒ?guī)所關(guān)心的公共設(shè)施、密度、高度的人口比例的綠色建筑,建筑空間的住處,線條,外觀的新特性的關(guān)系,等等。很少有規(guī)范化等工業(yè)廠房建筑雖然仍需遵守當(dāng)?shù)氐某鞘蟹ㄒ?guī),現(xiàn)代潮流走向光明,空氣的廠房.通常鋼筋混凝土或金屬結(jié)構(gòu),可以得到一個(gè)“放棄”型脊屋頂,把窗戶面向北,使自然采光無防太陽強(qiáng)光均勻分布。（二）IntroductiontoCivilEngineeringPapersCivilEngineeringforthedevelopmentofakeyrole,firstasamaterialfoundationforthecivilengineeringconstructionmaterials,followedbythesubsequentdevelopmentofthedesigntheoryandconstructiontechnology.Everytimeanewqualityofbuildingmaterials,civilengineeringwillbealeap-styledevelopment.Peoplecanonlyrelyontheearlyearth,woodandothernaturalmaterialsintheconstructionactivities,andlaterappearedinbrickandtilethatartificialmaterials,sothatthefirsthumantobreaktheshacklesofnaturalbuildingmaterials.ChinaintheeleventhcenturyBCintheearlyWesternZhouDynastycreatedthetile.ThefirstbrickinthefifthcenturyBCtothethirdcenturyBC,whenthetomboftheWarringStatesPeriod.Brickandtilebetterthanthemechanicalpropertiesofsoil,materials,andeasytomanufacture.Thebrickandtilesothatpeoplebegantoappearwidely,toalargenumberofhousingconstructionandurbanfloodcontrolproject,andsoon.Thiscivilengineeringtechnologyhasbeenrapiddevelopment.Upto18tothe19thcentury,aslongastwothousandyears,brickandtilehasbeenamajorcivilengineeringconstructionmaterials,humancivilizationhasmadeagreatcontributiontotheevenwasalsowidelyusedinthepresent.Theapplicationofalargenumberofsteelproductsisthesecondleapincivilengineering.Seventeen1970stheuseofpigiron,theearlynineteenthcentury,theuseofwroughtironbridgesandtheconstructionofhousing,whichisapreludetotheemergenceofsteel.Fromthebeginningofthemid-nineteenthcentury,metallurgicalindustry,smeltingandrollingouthightensileandcompressivestrength,ductility,uniformityofthequalityofconstructionsteelandthenproducehigh-strengthsteelwire,steelcables.Asaresultoftheneedtoadapttothedevelopmentofthesteelstructurehavebeenflourishing.Inadditiontotheapplicationoftheoriginalbeam,archstructure,thenewtruss,aframework,thestructureofnetwork,cablestructurestopromotethegradualemergenceofthestructureofYanintheformofflowers.Fromthebrickbuildinglong-spanstructures,stonestructures,afewmetersofwood,steelstructuretothedevelopmentoftensofmeters,afewhundredmeters,untilmodernkmabove.Sointheriver,crossthebridgefromshelves,onthegroundsincetheconstructionofskyscrapersandhigh-risetower,eveninthelayingofundergroundrailway,tocreateanunprecedentedmiracle.Inordertomeettheneedsofthedevelopmentofsteelworks,onthebasisofNewton'smechanics,materialmechanics,structuralmechanics,structuralengineeringdesigntheorycameintobeing,andsoon.Constructionmachinery,constructiontechnologyandconstructionorganizationdesigntheoryalsodevelopment,civilengineeringfromtheexperienceofrisingtobecomescience,engineeringpracticeandtheoreticalbasisforbothisadifferentplace,whichledtomorerapiddevelopmentofcivilengineering.Duringthenineteenthcentury,20,madeofPortlandcement,concretehascomeout.Concretecanaggregatematerials,easy-to-concretestructuresforming,butthetensilestrengthofconcreteisverysmall,limiteduse.Bythemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,thesurgeinsteelproduction,withtheemergenceofthisnewtypeofreinforcedconcretecompositeconstructionmaterials,whichbearthetensionsteel,concretebearthepressureandplaytheirownadvantages.Sincethebeginningofthe20thcentury,reinforcedconcreteiswidelyusedinvariousfieldsofcivilengineering.Fromthebeginningofthe1930s,therehavebeenpre-stressedconcrete.Pre-stressedconcretestructureofthecrackresistance,rigidityandcarryingcapacity,muchhigherthanthereinforcedconcretestructure,whichusesanevenwiderarea.CivilEngineeringintothereinforcedconcreteandprestressedconcretedominanthistoricalperiod.Concretebuildingstobringabouttheemergenceofneweconomic,aestheticstructureintheformofengineering,civilengineeringsothatanewconstructiontechnologyandengineeringdesignofthestructureofthetheory.Thisisanotherleapinthedevelopmentofcivilengineering.ThecharacteristicsofCivilEngineeringAprojecttobuildthefacilitiesingeneraltogothroughtheinvestigation,designandconstructioninthreestages,requiretheuseofgeologicalprospectingprojects,hydro-geologicalsurvey,engineeringsurvey,soilmechanics,mechanicalengineering,engineeringdesign,buildingmaterials,constructionequipment,engineeringmachinery,buildingtheeconomy,Andotherdisciplinesandconstructiontechnology,constructionandotherfieldsofknowledge,aswellascomputerandmechanicaltestingtechniques.Civilengineeringisthereforeabroadrangeofintegrateddisciplines.Withtheprogressinscienceandtechnologydevelopmentandengineeringpractice,thecivilengineeringdisciplineshavealsobeendevelopedintoabroadconnotation,thenumberofcategories,thestructureofcomplexintegratedsystem.CivilEngineeringisaccompaniedbythedevelopmentofhumansocietydeveloped.Itworksintheconstructionoffacilitiesreflectthevarioushistoricalperiodsofsocio-economic,cultural,scientific,technologicaldevelopmentoutlook,whichcivilsocietyhasbecomeoneofthehistoricaldevelopmentofthewitness.Inancienttimes,peoplebegantobuildsimplehouses,roads,bridgesandstillwaterchanneltomeetthesimplelifeandproduction.Later,inordertoadapttothewar,productionanddisseminationofreligiouslife,aswellastheneedsoftheconstructionofthecity,canals,palaces,templesandotherbuildings.Manywell-knownworksshowninthishistoricalperiodofhumancreativity.Forexample,theGreatWallofChina,Dujiangyan,theGrandCanal,ZhaozhouBridge,YingxianWoodenTower,thepyramidsofEgypt,Greece'sParthenon,Rome'swatersupplyproject,colosseumamphitheater(RomelargeanimalfightingField),aswellasmanyotherwell-knownchurches,palacesandsoon.Aftertheindustrialrevolution,especiallyinthe20thcentury,ontheonehand,civilsocietytoputforwardanewdemand;Ontheotherhand,allareasofsocietyfortheadvancementofcivilengineeringtocreategoodconditions.Thusthisperiodofcivilengineeringhasbeenadvancedbyleapsandbounds.Allovertheworldtherehavebeenlarge-scalemodernizationofindustrialplants,skyscrapers,nuclearpowerplants,highwaysandrailways,long-spanbridges,andlarge-diameterpipelineslongtunnel,theGrandCanal,thebigdams,airports,portandmarineengineering,etc..Forcivilengineeringcontinuallymodernhumansocietytocreateanewphysicalenvironment,humansociety,moderncivilizationhasbecomeanimportantpart.CivilEngineeringisaverypracticalsubjects.Intheearlydays,throughthecivilengineeringpractice,summingupsuccessfulexperience,inparticular,todrawlessonsfromthefailureofdeveloped.Fromthebeginningofthe17thcentury,withGalileoandNewtonasapilotwiththemechanicsofthemoderncivilengineeringpractice,graduallyformedthemechanical,structuralmechanics,fluidmechanics,rockmechanics,civilengineeringasthebasisoftheoreticalsubjects.Thisexperienceincivilengineeringfromthegraduallydevelopedintoascience.Inthecourseofthedevelopmentofcivilengineering,engineeringpracticeoftenfirstexperienceintheory,engineeringaccidentsoftenshowanewunforeseenfactors,triggeringanewtheoryoftheresearchanddevelopment.Sofaranumberofprojectsdealingwiththeproblem,isstillverymuchrelyonpracticalexperience.CivilEngineeringTechnologywiththemainreasonforthedevelopmentofengineeringpracticeandnotbyvirtueofscientificexperimentsandtheoreticalstudies,fortworeasons:First,someoftheobjectivesituationistoocomplicatedanddifficulttofaithfullycarryoutlaboratoryorfieldtestingandanalysis.Forexample,thefoundation,tunnelandundergroundengineeringanddeformationofthestateanditschangesovertime,stillneedtorefertoananalysisofengineeringexperiencetojudge.Second,onlyanewengineeringpracticeinordertorevealnewproblems.Forexample,theconstructionofahigh-risebuildings,high-risetowerandmast-spanbridges,windandearthquakeengineeringproblemshighlightedinordertodevelopthisnewtheoryandtechnology.Inthelong-termcivilengineeringpractice,itisnotonlybuildinggreatattentiontothearts,hasmadeoutstandingachievements;andotherworks,butalsothroughthechoiceofdifferentmaterials,suchastheuseofstone,steelandreinforcedconcrete,withnaturalEnvironmentalartintheconstructionofanumberofverybeautiful,veryfunctionalandgoodworks.AncientGreatWallofChina,themodernworld,manyofthetelevisiontowerandthebridgerampZhang,arecasesinpoint.（二）土木工程概論論文對(duì)土木工程的發(fā)展起關(guān)鍵作用的，首先是作為工程物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)的土木建筑材料，其次是隨之發(fā)展起來的設(shè)計(jì)理論和施工技術(shù)。每當(dāng)出現(xiàn)新的優(yōu)良的建筑材料時(shí)，土木工程就會(huì)有飛躍式的發(fā)展。人們?cè)谠缙谥荒芤揽磕嗤?、木料及其它天然材料從事營(yíng)造活動(dòng)，后來出現(xiàn)了磚和瓦這種人工建筑材料，使人類第一次沖破了天然建筑材料的束縛。中國(guó)在公元前十一世紀(jì)的西周初期制造出瓦。最早的磚出現(xiàn)在公元前五世紀(jì)至公元前三世紀(jì)戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)的墓室中。磚和瓦具有比土更優(yōu)越的力學(xué)性能，可以就地取材，而又易于加工制作。磚和瓦的出現(xiàn)使人們開始廣泛地、大量地修建房屋和城防工程等。由此土木工程技術(shù)得到了飛速的發(fā)展。直至18～19世紀(jì)，在長(zhǎng)達(dá)兩千多年時(shí)間里，磚和瓦一直是土木工程的重要建筑材料，為人類文明作出了偉大的貢獻(xiàn)，甚至在目前還被廣泛采用。鋼材的大量應(yīng)用是土木工程的第二次飛躍。十七世紀(jì)70年代開始使用生鐵、十九世紀(jì)初開始使用熟鐵建造橋梁和房屋，這是鋼結(jié)構(gòu)出現(xiàn)的前奏。從十九世紀(jì)中葉開始，冶金業(yè)冶煉并軋制出抗拉和抗壓強(qiáng)度都很高、延性好、質(zhì)量均勻的建筑鋼材，隨后又生產(chǎn)出高強(qiáng)度鋼絲、鋼索。于是適應(yīng)發(fā)展需要的鋼結(jié)構(gòu)得到蓬勃發(fā)展。除應(yīng)用原有的粱、拱結(jié)構(gòu)外，新興的桁架、框架、網(wǎng)架結(jié)構(gòu)、懸索結(jié)構(gòu)逐漸推廣，出現(xiàn)了結(jié)構(gòu)形式百花爭(zhēng)艷的局面。建筑物跨徑從磚結(jié)構(gòu)、石結(jié)構(gòu)、木結(jié)構(gòu)的幾米、幾十米發(fā)展到鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的百米、幾百米，直到現(xiàn)代的千米以上。于是在大江、海峽上架起大橋，在地面上建造起摩天大樓和高聳鐵塔，甚至在地面下鋪設(shè)鐵路，創(chuàng)造出前所未有的奇跡。為適應(yīng)鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程發(fā)展的需要，在牛頓力學(xué)的基礎(chǔ)上，材料力學(xué)、結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)、工程結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)理論等就應(yīng)運(yùn)而生。施工機(jī)械、施工技術(shù)和施工組織設(shè)計(jì)的理論也隨之發(fā)展，土木工程從經(jīng)驗(yàn)上升成為科學(xué)，在工程實(shí)踐和基礎(chǔ)理論方面都面貌一新，從而促成了土木工程更迅速的發(fā)展。十九世紀(jì)20年代，波特蘭水泥制成后，混凝土問世了?；炷凉橇峡梢跃偷厝〔?，混凝土構(gòu)件易于成型，但混凝土的抗拉強(qiáng)度很小，用途受到限制。十九世紀(jì)中葉以后，鋼鐵產(chǎn)量激增，隨之出現(xiàn)了鋼筋混凝土這種新型的復(fù)合建筑材料，其中鋼筋承擔(dān)拉力，混凝土承擔(dān)壓力，發(fā)揮了各自的優(yōu)點(diǎn)。二十世紀(jì)初以來，鋼筋混凝土廣泛應(yīng)用于土木工程的各個(gè)領(lǐng)域。從三十年代開始，出現(xiàn)了預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土。預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)的抗裂性能、剛度和承載能力，大大高于鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)，因而用途更為廣闊。土木工程進(jìn)入了鋼筋混凝土和預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土占統(tǒng)治地位的歷史時(shí)期?；炷恋某霈F(xiàn)給建筑物帶來了新的經(jīng)濟(jì)、美觀的工程結(jié)構(gòu)形式，使土木工程產(chǎn)生了新的施工技術(shù)和工程結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)理論。這是土木工程的又一次飛躍發(fā)展。土木工程的特點(diǎn)建造一項(xiàng)工程設(shè)施一般要經(jīng)過勘察、設(shè)計(jì)和施工三個(gè)階段，需要運(yùn)用工程地質(zhì)勘察、水文地質(zhì)勘察、工程測(cè)量、土力學(xué)、工程力學(xué)、工程設(shè)計(jì)、建筑材料、建筑設(shè)備、工程機(jī)械、建筑經(jīng)濟(jì)等學(xué)科和施工技術(shù)、施工組織等領(lǐng)域的知識(shí)，以及電子計(jì)算機(jī)和力學(xué)測(cè)試等技術(shù)。因而土木工程是一門范圍廣闊的綜合性學(xué)科。隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)的進(jìn)步和工程實(shí)踐的發(fā)展，土木工程這個(gè)學(xué)科也已發(fā)展成為內(nèi)涵廣泛、門類眾多、結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜的綜合體系。土木工程是伴隨著人類社會(huì)的發(fā)展而發(fā)展起來的。它所建造的工程設(shè)施反映出各個(gè)歷史時(shí)期社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)、文化、科學(xué)、技術(shù)發(fā)展的面貌，因而土木工程也就成為社會(huì)歷史發(fā)展的見證之一。遠(yuǎn)古時(shí)代，人們就開始修筑簡(jiǎn)陋的房舍、道路、橋梁和溝澶，以滿足簡(jiǎn)單的生活和生產(chǎn)需要。后來，人們?yōu)榱诉m應(yīng)戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)、生產(chǎn)和生活以及宗教傳播的需要，興建了城池、運(yùn)河、宮殿、寺廟以及其他各種建筑物。許多著名的工程設(shè)施顯示出人類在這個(gè)歷史時(shí)期的創(chuàng)造力。例如，中國(guó)的長(zhǎng)城、都江堰、大運(yùn)河、趙州橋、應(yīng)縣木塔，埃及的金字塔，希臘的巴臺(tái)農(nóng)神廟，羅馬的給水工程、科洛西姆圓形競(jìng)技場(chǎng)(羅馬大斗獸場(chǎng))，以及其他許多著名的教堂、宮殿等。產(chǎn)業(yè)革命以后，特別是到了20世紀(jì)，一方面社會(huì)向土木工程提出了新的需求；另一方面，社會(huì)各個(gè)領(lǐng)域?yàn)橥聊竟こ痰那斑M(jìn)創(chuàng)造了良好的條件。因而這個(gè)時(shí)期的土木工程得到突飛猛進(jìn)的發(fā)展。在世界各地出現(xiàn)了現(xiàn)代化規(guī)模宏大的工業(yè)廠房、摩天大廈，核電站、高速公路和鐵路、大跨橋梁、大直徑運(yùn)輸管道長(zhǎng)隧道、大運(yùn)河、大堤壩、大飛機(jī)場(chǎng)、大海港以及海洋工程等等?，F(xiàn)代土木工程不斷地為人類社會(huì)創(chuàng)造嶄新的物質(zhì)環(huán)境，成為人類社會(huì)現(xiàn)代文明的重要組成部分。土木工程是具有很強(qiáng)的實(shí)踐性的學(xué)科。在早期，土木工程是通過工程實(shí)踐，總結(jié)成功的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，尤其是吸取失敗的教訓(xùn)發(fā)展起來的。從17世紀(jì)開始，以伽利略和牛頓為先導(dǎo)的近代力學(xué)同土木工程實(shí)踐結(jié)合起來，逐漸形成材料力學(xué)、結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)、流體力學(xué)、巖體力學(xué)，作為土木工程的基礎(chǔ)理論的學(xué)科。這樣土木工程才逐漸從經(jīng)驗(yàn)發(fā)展成為科學(xué)。在土木工程的發(fā)展過程中，工程實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)常先行于理論，工程事故常顯示出未能預(yù)見的新因素，觸發(fā)新理論的研究和發(fā)展。至今不少工程問題的處理，在很大程度上仍然依靠實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)。土木工程技術(shù)的發(fā)展之所以主要憑借工程實(shí)踐而不是憑借科學(xué)試驗(yàn)和理論研究，有兩個(gè)原因：一是有些客觀情況過于復(fù)雜，難以如實(shí)地進(jìn)行室內(nèi)實(shí)驗(yàn)或現(xiàn)場(chǎng)測(cè)試和理論分析。例如，地基基礎(chǔ)、隧道及地下工程的受力和變形的狀態(tài)及其隨時(shí)間的變化，至今還需要參考工程經(jīng)驗(yàn)進(jìn)行分析判斷。二是只有進(jìn)行新的工程實(shí)踐，才能揭示新的問題。例如，建造了高層建筑、高聳塔桅和大跨橋梁等，工程的抗風(fēng)和抗震問題突出了，才能發(fā)展出這方面的新理論和技術(shù)。在土木工程的長(zhǎng)期實(shí)踐中，人們不僅對(duì)房屋建筑藝術(shù)給予很大注意，取得了卓越的成就；而且對(duì)其他工程設(shè)施，也通過選用不同的建筑材料，例如采用石料、鋼材和鋼筋混凝土，配合自然環(huán)境建造了許多在藝術(shù)上十分優(yōu)美、功能上又十分良好的工程。古代中國(guó)的萬里長(zhǎng)城，現(xiàn)代世界上的許多電視塔和斜張橋，都是這方面的例子。（三）WhenDoesConcreteMakeMoreSense?Thereareseveralfactorsthatmaymakeothermethodsofconstruction,mostnotablytilt-upconstruction,abetterchoicethansteelbuildings.Themostobviousfactoristhebuilding'ssize.Forprojectslessthan50,000squarefeet,steelisgenerallytheleastexpensivealternative.Forabuildingofthissize,thefixedor"openthedoor"costsofatilt-upconstructionproject(liketherentalofalargecrane,forexample)makeitmoreexpensivethansteel,eventhoughconcreteisusuallyalessexpensiverawmaterial.Asprojectsbecomelargerthan50,000squarefeet,however,thelowerpriceofconcretestartstooffsettilt-upconstruction'sfixedcostsandthismethodbecomescost-competitivewithametalbuilding.Thelargerthebuilding,themoreadvantageoustilt-upconstructionbecomes.Thecostofthesteelbuildingkitwillusuallybelowerthanapricequotedforaconcretebuilding,evenatiltwallbuilding.Ifcustomizingormodificationstothekitarenecessarytomeettheowner'sneeds,thesedesigncostsmustbeincludedwhencomparingtheprices.Also,thekitpricemaynotincludecoststhatarenormallyincorporatedintoaquoteforatilt-uportraditionallyconstructedbuilding.Someofthosecostsincludeconcretefoundation,permits,erectionandassemblycosts,taxes,electricalwiring,plumbing,environmentalcontrols,ductwork,interiorfinishing,etc.Thelocationoftheprojectwillalsoinfluencewhetherasteelbuildingisevenanoption.Buildersinagriculturalorlightlypopulatedareasgenerallyhavefewercoderestrictionsplacedonthem.Thecloserabuildingisplannedtoadenselypopulatedarea,themorestringentthefirecodes,buildingpermittingrequirementsandothermunicipalstandardsbecome.Insomecasessteelbuildingscannotbeusedincertainareasforthisreason.Othertimes,firecodesmayrequiresteelbuildingstobebuiltfurtherapartthantilt-upstructures,requiringalargerplotoflandfortheproject.Thisiswhy,inurbanareas,buildingsclosertothedowntownareaaregenerallymadeofconcreteandsteelbuildingsbecomemorecommonontheoutskirtsoftown.Thereasonsteelbuildingsfacegreatercodelimitationsisthattheygenerallyofferlessfireprotectionthantilt-uporotherconcretebuildings.Whilesteelisnotcombustible,itisnotconsideredfireproofbecauseitcandistortorloseitsstructuralstrengthwhenexposedtoheat.Further,afireononesideofametalwallcangeneratedestructiveheatontheotherside,damagingthepropertyinside.Steelbuildingdesignersuseavarietyoftechnologies,fromspraystofire-retardantpanelsorblankets,tomitigatethefire-resistiveproblem.Bycomparison,atypical6.5"concretewallhasafireresistiveratingoffourhoursormore.Tiltwallandconcreteprovidesuperiorfireprotectionforthepropertyandpeopleinsideabuilding.Theintendeduseforabuildingwillalsoinfluencewhethersteelorconcreteisthebestchoice.Ingeneralsteelbuildingsworkverywellforstoragebuildings,indoorsportsfacilities,workshops,andaircrafthangers,buttheyarelesssuitedforhigher-traffickedbuildings.Comparativelyspeaking,steelwallsarelessdurablethanconcretewalls.Thisholdstrueinthefaceofnaturalforces(badweather,earthquakes)aswellasfortruckorforkliftaccidents.Whenabuildingisdamagedbyavehicle,thedamageisgenerallymorelocalizedandlessexpensivetorepairforatilt-uporconcretebuildingthanforasteelbuilding.Forownerswhowanttobuildawarehouseorotherfacilitywheretrucksorforkliftswillbeused,thiscanbeaveryimportantconsideration.Defensecontractorfacilities,prisons,orotherbuildingsthatrequirepositivesecurityalsoaremuchbettersuitedtoimpenetrableconcretethantocomparativelyunsecuresteel.Whilesteelisreasonablydurable,concreteremainsthematerialofchoiceforbuildingsthatrequirel