雅思基礎閱讀

搭配題：P74~P76LinguisticsandAppliedLinguistics:HierarchyorPartnership?Intheirday-to-daybusiness,professionalswhoseworkinvolveslanguageinsomewayoranotheroftenfaceproblemsthatseemtohavenoimmediateorobvioussolutionwithinthehabitualpracticeswhichdemarcatetheirprofessionalexpertise.Oneavenueopentothosewhofindthemselvesinthispositionistohaverecoursetothedisciplineoflinguistics.Itisthebeliefthatlinguisticscanofferinsightsandwaysforwardintheresolutionofproblemsrelatedtolanguageinawidevarietyofcontextsthatunderliestheveryexistenceofthedisciplineusuallycalledappliedlinguistics.Appliedlinguiststrytooffersolutionsto“real-worldproblemsinwhichlanguageisacentralissue”,howevertentativeor“implied”thosesolutionsmaybe.What,then,mightfallwithinthedomainoftypicalappliedlinguisticproblems?Alistofsuchproblemswillcertainlybewide-rangingandpotentiallyendless,butmightincludethefollowing:Aspeechtherapistsetsouttoinvestigatewhyafour-year-oldchildhasfailedtodevelopnormallinguisticsskillsforachildofthatage;ateacherofEnglishasaforeignlanguagewonderswhygroupsoflearnerssharingthesamefirstlanguageregularlymakeaparticulargrammaticalmistakethatlearnersfromotherlanguagebackgrounddonot;anexpertwitnessinacriminalcasetriestosolvetheproblemofwhoexactlyinstigatedacrime,workingonlywithstatementsmadetothepolice;azoologistinvestigatesthequestionwhethermonkeyshavelanguagesimilartoorquitedistinctfromhumanlanguageandhowitworks;amedicalsociologistsetsouttounderstandbetterthechangesthatoccurinpeople’suseoflanguageastheymoveintooldage.Thelistcouldcontinue,andwithprofessionaldiversificationofthekindcommoninmodernsocieties,isquitelikelytogrowevenbiggerovertheyears.Whatalltheseprofessionalproblemshaveincommonisthepossibilityofturningtothedisciplineoflinguisticstoseekinsightsandpotentialsolutions.Iftheyweretodothis,theprofessionalsdirectlyinvolvedwouldbecome,evenifonlytemporarily,appliedlinguists..thisisdifferentfromsayingthatthereisacommunityofappliedlinguists(usuallyassociatedwithuniversityacademicdepartments)whosejobitistomediate(andteach)linguisticsandtosuggestapplications.Appliedlinguisticsisessentiallyaproblem-drivendiscipline,ratherthanatheory-drivenone,andthecommunityofappliedlinguistshascharacteriseditselfinthehistoriographyofthedisciplinebyvarietyandcatholicismoftheoreticalorientation.Thisisincontrasttolinguistics,whereassociationwithparticularschoolsofthoughtortheoriestendstoexertconsiderablygreatercentripetalforce.Appliedlinguisticscan(andshould)notonlytesttheapplicabilityandreplicabilityoflinguistictheoryanddescription,butalsoquestionandchallengethemwheretheyarefoundwanting.Inotherwords,iftherelationshipbetweenlinguisticsanditsapplicationsistobeafruitfulpartnershipandneitheratop-downimpositionbytheoristsonpractitionersnorabottom-upcynicismleveledbypractitionersagainsttheoreticians,thenbothsidesofthelinguistics/appliedlinguisticsrelationshipoughttobeaccountabletoandinregulardialoguewitheachotherwithregardtotheoriesaswellaspractices.Accountabilitycandiscomfitbothcommunities,andabdicationofaccountabilityissometimestheeasierlinetoadopt.Herebi-directionalaccountabilitywillbeconsideredanimportantconstraininginfluenceonboththeapplicabilityoflinguisticsandtheevaluationofappliedlinguisticsolutions.Accountabilitywillcentreonasetofresponsibilitiesfallingontheshouldersoflinguistsandappliedlinguistsinturn.Theseinclude:theresponsibilityoflinguiststobuildtheoriesoflanguagethataretestable,whichconnectwithperceivedrealitiesandwhicharenotcontradictedorimmediatelyrefutedwhentheyconfrontthoserealities;theresponsibilityoflinguiststooffermodels,descriptionsandexplanationsoflanguagethatsatisfynotonlyintellectualrigorbutintuition,rationalityandcommonsense;theresponsibilityofappliedlinguistsnottomisrepresenttheories,descriptionsandmodels;theresponsibilityofappliedlinguistsnottoapplytheories,descriptionsandmodelstoill-suitedpurposesforwhichtheywereneverintended;theresponsibilityofappliedlinguistsnotsimplyto“applylinguistics”buttoworktowards“relevantmodels”oflanguagedescription;theresponsibilityofappliedlinguiststoprovideaninterfacebetweenlinguistsandpractitionerswhereappropriate,andtobeabletotalkonequaltermstobothparties;theresponsibilityonbothsidestoadoptacriticalpositionvis-a-vistheworkoftheirpeers,bothwithinandacrossthetwocommunities;theresponsibilityofbothcommunitiestoexchangeexperiencewithfront-endpractitionerssuchaslanguageteachers,psychologistsorsocialworkers,whomaynothaveatraininginlinguisticsnorthetimeorresourcesto“todoappliedlinguistics”themselves,butwhomaybegenuinelyeagertocommunicatewithbothgroups.Excerptedfrom“IssuesinAppliedLinguistics”authoredbyMichaelMcCarthy,ProfessorofAppliedLinguisticsattheUniversityofNottingham,whohasaninternationalreputationinthefieldofvocabularystudiesandintheapplicationofdiscourseanalysis.IssuesinAppliedLinguistswaspublishedbyCambridgeUniversityPress,UKin2001.Questions1~7MatchthefollowingstatementswithA(forLinguisticsorResponsibilityofLinguists),B(forAppliedLinguisticsorResponsibilityofAppliedLinguists),andAB(forbothAandB)inaccordancewiththeabovearticle.theory-drivenproblem-drivenbeinglinkedwithaparticularschoolofthoughtortheoryassessingtheapplicabilityandreplicabilityofthetheoryofalanguageconstructingtestablelinguistictheoriesembracingadiagnosticattituderegardingtheresearchoftheircolleaguestradingexperiencewithreal-worldlinguisticpractitionersP77-79AnimalConsciousnessTherearesomefundamentalassumptionslurkingbehindtheideathattheburdenofproofindiscussionsofanimalconsciousnesslieswiththosewhowouldargueforit,asopposedtothosewhowouldargueagainst.Weshouldrefrainfromofferingcomplexexplanationswhenmoresimpleexplanationssuffice.Therefore,weshouldnotclaimthatconsciousnessexitsinanimalsifsimplerexplanationscanaccountfortheobservedbehaviors.Theassumptionhereisthatthereisanascendinghierarchyofmentalcapabilitiesorfunctions,withconsciousnessatthetop.OnGallup’sviewwehaveconsciousness,self–consciousnessandconsciousnessofothermindsstackedatthetop.Beneaththistoplevelareabilitieslikelearning,memory,andsoonthatcanoccurinblankminds.Phenomenalconsciousnessdoesnotconstitutealevelofitsown.ForPovinelli,phenomenalconsciousnessmayhaveitsownlevel,beneaththelevelwherewefindtheoryofmindandself–consciousness.Bothinvestigatorsmakethecommonassumptionthatmanymentalfunctionsaremeremechanismsrequiringnoawarenessfortheirfunction,mechanismsthatinhabitlowerlevelsofthehierarchy.Animalmindsshouldbeexplainedatthelowestlevelofthehierarchythatcanaccountfortheobservedbehaviors.Thishighlymechanisticviewofanimalmindsisadirectinheritancefromcertainrecurrentthemesinourwesternintellectualtradition.Ithasancientroots(bothinGreekphilosophyandChristianity)inaformofspeciesismthatplaceshumansatthetopofthepsychologicalandbiologicalheap.InDescartes,thisviewtakestheformofamind-bodydualisminwhichourmentalnatureismarkedlydifferentfromandsuperiortoourbodilynature.Whencastinevolutionarytermsitistheviewthathumanconsciousnessisthemosthighlyevolvedmentalfunctionintheanimalkingdom.Combinedwiththenotionthatanimalsdonothaveminds(orsouls)atall,suchviewshelpedtojustifythebeginningsofanimalexperimentation.Weessentiallyhavetwoparallelhierarchiesthatareassumedtomapontooneanother.Thebiologicalhierarchyhashumansatthetop,followingbyotherprimates,then‘loweranimals’ofallsorts.Thepsychologicalhierarchyhasconsciousnessatthetop(maybeself-consciousnessaboveit),complexcognition(memory,learning,etc.)below,andbehavioratthebottom.Theassumptionsherearethatthehigherlevelsaremotecomplex.Thisassumptionisincorporatedintocognitivemodelsofconsciousnessthatplaceconsciousnessatthecenterortopoftheinformationprocessingsystem,andinevolutionaryexplanationsofConsciousnessthatargueforitsroleindealingwiththedemandsofmorecomplexinformationprocessingsystemsinteractingwithmorecomplexenvironments.Ina1998articleintheJoumalofConsciousnessStudentsentitles“Consciousness:ANaturalHistory”,MaxineSheetsJohnstonequestionsthecorrectnessofthesehierarchicalconceptionsandoftheassumptionthat“unconsciousnesshistoricallyprecededconsciousness”inanimals.Shesuggeststhatproprioceptionmaybethefirstevolvedformofconsciousness.Theevolutionofproprioception,sheproposes,paralleistheevolutionofanimateforms,suchthatfromtheverybeginningoftheabilityoforganismstomove,therewasaneedforakindofflexibleresponsivitytoexternalstimuli.Itisarbitrary,sheargues,tocallthisresponsivitybehavioralorcognitivewhenreferringto‘loweranimals’andconsciouswhenreferringtohumansor‘higheranimals’.Thefactthatthisisfrequentlydonehasmuchtodo,sheclaims,withourbrain-centerednotionsofconsciousnessthatdisregardmoreembodiedsensoryabilities.Shenotesthatthefirsthumansensetodevelopisproprioception,anditisthroughthissensethatweinitiallycometolearntomoveourbodiesandtofeelourselves.Thisisasensethatwesharewithmany‘simple’creatures.Whatevertheanimal,itsmovementcannotbeabsolutelyprogrammedsuchthat,forexample,atalltimesitsparticularspeedanddirectionofmovement,itseveryimpulseandstirring,itseverypauseandstillness,runautomaticallyonsomethingakintoalifetimetape.Offeringmechanisticexplanationsforanimalbehaviorsmayrevealmoreaboutone’scommitmenttocertainassumptionsaboutthemappingbetweencertainpresupposedbiologicalandpsychologicalhierarchiesofcomplexitythanitdoesaboutone’scommitmenttoparsimonyofexplanation.Thenotionofsomesortofphylogenetichierarchyinthementalcapacityofanimals(andthus,presumably,inabilitytosuffer)longpredatesthedevelopmentofevolutionarytheoryandhumanknowledgeofthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenhumanandnon-humannervoussystems.Indeed,thefactthatveryyoungchildrenwillspontaneouslytalkto‘higher’animals,butonlytalkabout“l(fā)ower”ones,suchasinvertebrates,suggeststhathumanbeingsmayholdadeep-rootedsenseoftheirgreaterandlesserconnectednesswithdifferentspecies.Meantime,althoughtheanimalrightsphilosopherSingerappearstorejectspeciesisminprinciple,manyoftheanimalrightscampaignersdid,infact,perceiveimportantdifferencesbetween“higher”and“l(fā)ower”animalsintheirabilitytosuffer.Question1-8Usetheinformationinthepassagetomatchthepeople(listedA~E)withopinions(listed1~8)below.Writetheappropriateletter(A~E)inboxes1~8onyourAnswA GallupB PovinelliC GallupandPovinelliD DescartesE MaxineSheetsJohnstone1.Theresponsivitiesofthehumansandanimalshavethesameorigin.2.Phenomenalconsciousnessisbeneaththeself-consciousnesslevel3.Animalsdonotbehavefullyautomatically.4.Thereisnoindependentlevelofphenomenalconsciousness.5. Animalmindsareverymechanistic.6.Humanshavebothmentalandbodilymatures.7.Memoryisatthesecondlevelinthepsychologicalhierarchy.8.Animalsbehavewithoutawareness.P191-194ReadingPassage3Youareadvisedtospendabout20minutesonQuestions28-39whicharebasedonReadingPassage3below.PupilSizeAndCommunicationIthasalreadybeenwellestablishedthatchangesinpupilsizeareclearlyassociatedwithchangesinattitude.Inatypicalexample,whenviewingphotographsoffood,hungrysubjectsexperienceamuchgreaterincreaseinpupildiameterthandosatedsubjects(seefigure1).Howeveritnowappearsthatenlargedorconstrictedpupilscanalsoaffecttheresponseofthepersonwhoobservedthem.Studiesofthepupilasanindicatorofattitudepointtothepossibilitythatonepersonusesanotherperson’spupilsizeasasourceofinformationaboutthatperson’sfeelingsorattitudes.Inoneexperimenttwophotographsofanattractiveyoungwomanwereshowntoagroupofmen.Thephotographswereidenticalexceptthatinonethewoman’spupilshadbeenretouchedtomakethemlargerandintheothertheyhadbeenretouchedtomakethemsmaller.Noneofthemenreportednoticingthedifferenceinpupilsize,butwhentheywereaskedtodescribethewoman,theysaidthatthewomeninthepicturewiththelargepupilswas“soft”,“morefeminine”or“pretty”.Thesamewoman,inthepicturewiththesmallpupilswasdescribedasbeing“hard”,“selfish”or“cold”.Therecouldbelittledoubtthatthelargepupilsmadethewomanmoreattractivetothemen.Itseemsthatwhatisappealingaboutlargepupilsinawoman,isthattheyareanindicatorofinterest,whichcanbeinterpretedassexualinterest.However,whenmenviewapictureofawomanwithlargepupils,theirownpupilsdilate.Inotherwords,seeinglargepupilsgivesrisetolargerpupils.Interestingly,menandwomenshowedalmostnoincreaseinpupilsizewhenviewingphotographsofmembersofthesamesexwithdilatedpupils.Thatthedilationresponseisinfactlearnedratherthaninnateissupportedbyexperimentswithchildren.Inoneexperiment,subjectsaged6to22wereshowndrawingsoffemalefacesthathaddifferentsizedpupils,andaskedtochoosetheonewhichwas“happier”.Theresultsshowedthat,uptotheageof14,apersondoesnotnecessarilyperceivelargerpupilsasbeinghappierthansmallerpupils(seefigure2).OfparticularinterestwasanotherfindingbyMclean:blue-eyedsubjectsweremorelikelytojudgelargepupilsasbeinghappyandthanbrown-eyedsubjects.Thisfindingwasconfirmedwhenanothergroupofsubjectswereaskedtofillinthepupilsondrawingsofhappyfacesandangryones:theblue-eyedsubjectsdrewlarger“happy”pupilsandsmaller“angry”pupilsthanthebrown-eyedsubjects(seefigure3).Blue-eyedpeoplehavealsobeenfoundtohaveastrongerpupilresponsethanbrown-eyedpeoplewhentheyviewapicturethatcausespupildilationorconstriction.Tobemoreprecise,withrespecttothetotalrangeofresponsefromthesmallestpupilsizetothelargest,therangeisgreaterforblue-eyedpeoplethanitisforbrown-eyedpeople.Questions28-34BasedontheinformationinReadingPassage3,“PupilSizeandCommunication”,indicatetherelationshipbetweeneachofthetwomeasureslistedbelowintermsof:PCifthereisapositivecorrelationL/NifthereislittleornocorrelationNIifthereisnoinformationWriteyouranswers(PC,L/N,NI)inboxes28-ExampleAnswerChangeinpupilsizeChangeinattitudePCMEASURE1MEASURE228.ImagesoffoodPupildilationinhungrysubjects29.PupildilationinpictureofwomanPupildilationinmalesubject30.PupildilationinpictureofwomanPupildilationinfemalesubject31.SmallpupilsizeinpictureofwomanNegativeresponseinmalesubject32.SmallpupilsizeinpictureofwomanNegativeresponseinfemalesubject33.Subjectsunder14yearsofagePositiveresponsetolargepupil34.DarknessofeyecolourinphotographSubject’sestimateof“happiness”Question35-39WriteawordorshoutphraseofNOTMORETHANTHREWORDSTOanswerthefollowingquestions,accordingtoinformationinReadingPassage3.Writeyouranswersinboxes35-39onyourExampleAnswerWhatcanchangesinpupilsizeindicateChangesinattitude35.Accordingtothedata,whatkindoffooddohungrypeoplerespondtomostreadily?36.Accordingtothedata,whatkindoffooddopeoplewhoarenothungryfindparticularlyunattractive?37.Whatinterpretationisgivenformen’sattractiontowomenwithlargepupils?38.Whatreasonissuggestedforchildrenunder14notreactingtopupilsizeinotherpeople?39.Howdidblue-eyedsubjectscomparewithbrown-eyedsubjectsintermsofrangeofresponse?P240-243READINGPASSAGE2Youshouldspendabout20minutesonQuestions14-26,whicharebasedonReadingPassage2belowStickingPowerWanttowalkontheceilling?AllittakesisabitoffancyfootworkAIfKellarAutumn,anexpertinbiomechanicsatClarkCollegeinPortland,Oregon,hashisway,thefirstfootprintsonMarswon’tbehuman.They’llbelongtoagecko.Geckotoeshavelegendarystickingpower,andtheClarkCollegeBAutumnisoneofalinglineofresearcherswhohavepuzzledoverthegecko’sgravity-defyingfootwork.Earlierthisyear,heandhiscolleaguesdiscoveredthatthegecko’stoesdon’tjuststick,theybondtothesurfacebeneaththem.Engineersarealreadytryingtocopythegecko’stechnique-butreptilianfeetarenottheonlyonestheyareinterestedin.CSomeofthemostpersistent‘hanging’creaturesareinsects.Theycandefynotjustgravity,butgustsofwind,raindropsandapredator’sattempttoprizethemloose.Recentdiscoveriesabouthowtheyachievethiscouldleadtothedevelopmentofquick-releaseadhesivesandminiaturegrippers,idealformanipulatingmicroscopiccomponentsorholdingtinybitsoftissuetogetherduringsurgery.‘Therearelotsofwaystomaketwosurfacessticktogether,butthereareveryfewwhichprovidepreciseandreversibleattachment,’saysStasGorb,abiologistinTubingen,DGeckosandinsectshavebothperfectedwaysofdoingthis,andengineersandscientistswoulddearlylovetoknowhow.Frictioncertainlyplaysapartinassistinghorizontalmovement,butwhentheanimalisrunningupaslope,climbingverticallyortravelingupsidedown,itneedsamorepowerfuladhesive.Justwhatthatadhesiveishasbeenhotlydebatedforyears.Somepeoplesuggestedthatinsectshadmicro-suckers.Somereckonedtheyreliedonelectrostaticforces.Othersthoughtthatintermolecularforcesbetweenpadandleafmightprovideafirmfoothold.EMostoftheevidencesuggeststhatinsectsrelyon‘wetadhesion’,hangingonwiththehelpofathinfilmoffluidonthebottomofthepad.Insectsoftenleavetinytrailofoilyfootprints.Someclearlysecreteafluidontothe‘soles’oftheirfeet.Andtheytendtolosetheirfootingwhentheynavetheirfeetcleanedordried.FThisyear,WalterFederle,anentomologistattheUniversityofWürzburg,showedexperimentallythataninsect’sstickingpowerdependsonathinfilmofliquidunderitsfeet.Heplacedanantonapolishedturntableinsidetherotorofacentrifuge,andswitchediton.Atslowspeeds,theantcarriedonwalkingunperturbed.Butasthescientistslowlyincreasedthespeed,thepullingforcesgrewstrongerandtheantstoppeddead,legsspreadoutandallsixfeetplantedfirmlyontheground.Athigherspeedsstill,theant’sfeetbegantoslide.‘Thiscanonlybeexplainedbythepresenceofaliquid,’saysFederle.‘Iftheantreliedonsomeformordryadhesion,itsfeetwouldpopabruptlyoffthesurfaceoncethesurfaceoncethepullgottoostrong.’GButtheliquidisn’tthewholestory.Whatengineersreallyfindexcitingaboutinsectfeetisthewaytheymakealmostperfectcontactwiththesurfacebeneath.‘Stickingtoaperfectlysmoothsurfaceisnobigdeal,’saysGorb.Butinnature,eventhesmoothest-lookingsurfaceshavemicroscopiclumpsandbumps.Forafootpadtomakegoodcontact,itmustfollowthecontoursofthelandscapebeneathit.Files,beetlesandearwigshavesolvedtheproblemwithhairyfootpads,withhairsthatbendlikethebristlesofatoothbrushtoaccommodatethetroughsbelow.HGorbhastesteddozensofspecieswiththissortofpadtoseewhichhadthebeststick.Filesresistapullofthreeorfourtimestheirbodyweight-perfectlyadequateforcrossingtheceiling.Butbeetlescandobetterandthechampionisasmall,bluebeetlewithoversizedyellowfeet,foundinthesouth-easternpartsoftheUS.ITomEisner,achemicalecologistatCornellUniversityinNewYork,hasbeenfascinatedbythisbeetleforyears.Almost30yearsago,hesuggestedthatthebeetleclungontighttoavoidbeingpickedoffbypredators-antsinparticular.WhenEisnermeasuredthebeetle’sstickingpowerearlierthisyear,hefoundthatitcanwithstandpullingforcesofaround80timesitsownweightforabouttwominutesandanastonishing200timesitsownweightforshorterperiods,‘Theantsgiveupbecausethebeetleholdsonlongerthantheycanbebotheredtoarrackit,’hesays.JWhateverliquidinsectsrelyon,thegeckoseemsabletomanagewithoutit.Nooneknowsquitewhythegeckoneedssomuchstickingpower.‘Itseemsoverbuiltforjob,’saysAutumn.Butwhateverthegecko’sneedsare,itsskillsareindemandbyhumans.AutumnandhiscolleaguesinOregonhavealreadyhelpedtocreatearobotthatwalkslikealizard-rollingitstoesdownandpeelingthemupagain.Atthemoment,though,ithastomakedowithballsofgluetogiveitstick.Thenextstepistotrytoreproducethehairsonagecko’stoesandcreatearobotwiththefullsetofgeckoskills.Thenwecouldbuildrobotswithfeetthatstickwithoutglue,cleanthemselvesandworkjustaswellunderwaterasinthevacuumofspace,orcrawlingoverthedustylandscapeofMars.Questions14-18Lookatthefollowingstatements(Questions14-18)andthelistofscientistsbelow.MatcheachstatementwiththecorrectscientistA,B,CorD.WritethecorrectletterA,B,CorDinboxes14-14Someinsectsusetheirabilitytosticktosurfacesasawayofdefendingthemselves.15Whatmakesstickyinsectfeetspecialisthefactthattheycanalsodetachthemselveseasilyfromasurface.16Geckofeetseemtobestickierthantheyneedtobe.17A18Evidenceshowsthatinordertostick,insectfeethavetobewet.ListofScientistsAKellarAutumnBStasGorbCWalterFederleDTomEisnerQuestions19-22ReadingPassage2hastenparagraphsA-J.Whichparagraphcontainsthefollowinginformation?WritethecorrectletterA-Jinboxes19-19someofthepracticalthingsagecko-styleadhesivecouldbeusedfor20a21threedifferenttheoriesscientistshavehadabouthowinsectfeetstick22examplesofremarkablegeckomovments填空題summaryP130-133PastandPresentoftheMovieIndustryThebeginningsofthemovieindustrycanbetracedbacktothe1800’s,developingmuchlaterthanotherartforms,suchasmusicandpainting.Thefirstmotionpictureexhibition,whichopenedintheearly1900’s,wascalledthe“nickelodeontheater”.Admissionwasonly5cents,andthisattractedalargeaudiencetowatchmoviesasasourceofentertainment.Theseearlytheaterslaidthefoundationforthemovieindustry’sIntheearlystagesofthemovieindustry,themajorityofthenation’smoviehousesweresituatedinsmalltownsandcityneighborhoods.Asinanyindustry,thereweremajorplayersthatwerenotonlyresponsibleforexhibitingfilms,butwerealsoleadersinproducinganddistributionthem.SomeofthekeycompaniesincludedParamount,WarnerBros.,R.K.O.,Loews(MGM),andFox(whichlaterbecameTwentiethCenturyFox).Itissurprisingtonotethatalthoughthesecompanieswereconsideredthecrèmedelacrèmeofthemovieindustry,theyonlydominatedapproximately20%ofthecountry’smovietheaters.Thismeantthatnumerousothersmallertheatershadsubstantialmarketshareinthemovieindustryaswell.Afewofthesmallerindependentlyownedtheatersdecidedtoconsolidateduringthe1930’Althoughonly14,000homesownedatelevisionduringthe1940’s,itstillhadanegativeimpactonmoviehousesacrossthecountry.Asmouehouseholdsboughttelevisionsets,ticketsalesdecreasedsubstantially.Inanefforttodrumuprevenueduringthe1950’s,theCinerama(whichincludedacurvedscreenwrappedaroundtheentiretheaterto“engulf”theaudience)and3-Dmovieswereintroduced.Overtime,howevertheincreasingpopularityofthetelevisionultimatelydominated.Bythe1960’s,movietheatershadlost60%oftheiraverageweeklyattendanceandmorethanhalfofthe20,000theatersthatbeganoperationsinthe1940’swereforcedtoclosedown.TheselossesbecamedeBythe1970’s,themovieindustrywasprofitingagain.Insteadofthetelevisionactingasasubstituteformofentertainment,itwasusedasanationaladvertisingmediumthatpromotedweeklymoviesandshowtimes.Withinthenextfewyears,multi-screenoperationsinsuburbanshoppingmallsInthefollowingdecades,manytheatercompaniesestablishedthemselvesinthegrowingindustry.OneoftheprominentcompaniesontheEastCoastisLoewsCineplexEntertainmentCorporation.ThiscorporationistheresultfromamergerbetweenSonyCorporation’sLoewsTheatersExhibitionGroupandCineplexOdeonCorporation.LoewsTheaterswasthefirstcommercialmotionpictureexhibitorinNorthAmerica.Itsoperationsbeganin1904,whenMarcusLoewestablisheda“nickelodeon”inarentedroomaboveapennyarcadestoreinCincinnati,Ohio.In1924,hemergedMetro,asilentmovieproductioncompany,withTheGoldwynPicturesCorporationandLouisB.MayerPicturestoform,MetroGoldwynMayer(MGM).Afterthemerge,LoewsshowedfilmsproducedbyMGMuntil1959,whenanantitrustrulingforcedstudiostogiveupcontroloftheaters,constricTheothercounterpartinthismergerisCineplexOdeon,basedinToronto,Canada.Thefirm,foundedin1979,wasanintegratedentertainmentcompanythatbecameinvolvedinexhibitionanddistributionofmotionpictures.Besidesdistributionofmotionpictures,italsoownedotheroperationsincludingamajorfilmprocessinglaboratoryandapost-productionsoundfacility.GarthDrabinskystartedCineplexwithan18-screent