環(huán)境科學(xué) 交叉關(guān)系學(xué)科 課后題答案 第二章

CHAPTERTWO1.Therate,scaleandcomplexityofinteractionsbetweenpeopleandenvironmenthaveseenunprecedentedincreases.Wearebeginningtorealizeourinterrelatednesswithourenvironment,astheenvironmentalchangesbecomesobviousduetotechnologyadvanceandthepublicawarenessincreasedintheimportanceofnaturalenvironment.Thereforeanewethiciscalledfortomeetthechallenges.Ideally,thelawsofaparticularnationorcommunityshouldmatchtheethicalcommitmentsofthoselivingthere,butitmaytakealongperiodofstruggleanddebateinreality,astheabolitionofslavery,womensequalitywithmen.However,noteveryethicallyrightactionhasasupportinglaw.Incaseofenvironmentalissues,sometimesisappropriateislegislatesomething,likeemissionofpollutants,whilesometimesactionshouldbeleftuptothepersonalethicalcommitment,whichisdeterminedbycertainsocial/economicpressuresandworksbetterontheindividuallevel.Anthropocentrism(humancenteredethic)istheviewthatallenvironmentalresponsibilityisderivedfromhumaninterestsalone.Biocentrism(life-centeredethic)isthatallformsoflifehaveaninherentrighttoexist.Ecocentrismmaintainstheenvironmentdeservesdirectmoralconsideration,insteadofwhatismerelyderivedfromhuman/animalinterests.Theenvironmentitselfhasmoralworth.ThedevelopmentapproachassumesthathumanraceisandshouldbemasterofnatureandthattheEarthanditsresourcesexistsolelyforourbenefitandpleasure.Itthinkshighlyofhumancreativityandingenuityandholdsthatcontinualeconomicgrowthisamoralidealforsociety.Thepreservationistapproachstrivestokeeplargeportionsofnatureintactbecausenatureisregardedtohaveintrinsicvalueapartfromhumanuses.Natureisnotaresourcebutarefugefromeconomicactivity.Theconservationistapproachstrikesthebalancebetweenunrestraineddevelopmentandpreservationism.Conservationiststendtoconsiderawiderangeoflong-termhumangoodsintheiraboutenvironmentalmanagement.Environmentaljusticeisacriticalcomponentofenvironmentalprotection.Itiscloselyrelatedtocivilrights,andnogroupofpeople,includingracial,ethnicorsocioeconomicgroups,shouldbearadisproportionateshareofthenegativeenvironmentalconsequencesresultingfromvariousprogramsorpolicies.EJsignifiesthattheparticipantsofenvironmentmovementhasshiftfrommiddle-classandaffluentwhitepeopleinAmericatominoritiesandindigenouspeople.Corporationsaredesignedtooperateataprofit,andinordertomaximizeitsprofitmargin,corporationtendstocutinvestmentsindealingwithwastedisposalandpollution.Inthisway,corporatebehaviordonttakepublicandenvironmentalwellbeingintoconsiderations,oftenviolatingtheenvironmentalethics.Somecompaniesmaypubliclyaddresstheirconcernsforenvironmenttothepurposeofsocialmarketing(calledgreenwashing).Buttheyactuallymakenoattempttolowertheenvironmentalimpactofitsproduction.Individuals,asshareholderscandemandthedirectorsofcorporationtorunitethically.Asexecutives,theycanwieldmassivecorporatepowerandguidethecorporationtoadoptabetterenvironmentalapproach.Whatsmore,theethicofconsumptioncanalsoaffectthecorporatebehaviors.Bychoosingfoodthatisproducedlocally,lowinfoodchainandgrownwithleastchemicalfertilizersandpesticides.Buyingdurableconsumerandreusingproducts.Conservingenergyetc.Globalenvironmentalethicsaddressthewideninggapbetweenrichandpoorcountries,andcallforthemtosetasidepoliticaldifferencestopromoteglobalactiononenvironment.ItalsoconvinceeveryoneofusthatwehaveanobligationtominimizetheharmwecausetoecologicalsystemsandtheEarth.Yes.Triplebottomlineisagreenbusinessconcept,whichallowsexecutivestogaugeonthreefronts.Itismorecomprehensiveasitnotonlytakeseconomiccostsbutalsoenvironmentalcostsintoconsiderationandhelpscompaniessurvive.Statelawswillbeestablishedtogranttaxbreakstobusinessesthatcomplywithgreenbusinessconcept.Morecomplexandstringentenvironmentalandpublicsafetydemandswillcontinuetoinfluencecorporatedecisions.Triplebottomlinemaybecomethecompulsoryrule.CHAPTERTHREEAnenvironmentalriskassessmentcouldprovideanorderly,clearlystatedandconsistentwaytodealwithscientificissues1)whetherariskexists,2)themagnitudeoftheriskand3)theconsequencesofthenegativeoutcomewhenacceptingtherisk.Itcanalsostatetheuncertaintyassociatedwithalternativeapproachestodealingwithenvironmentalissues,whichhelpsinstitutionsdecideresearchprioritiesandplaninthewaythatprotectsenvironmentandbureaustosetregulatoryprioritiesandsupportregulatoryaction.Sometoolsareusedtocalculatetheriskswhichisoftenhardtoattain:estimationsbasedonpastexperienceorestablishmodelfornovelriskbylaboratorystudies(experimentingonotherspeciese.g.rabbits)orcomputerstimulations.economiccostsandbenefitsenvironmentalcostsandbenefitsFourstepstotake:identificationoftheprojecttobeevaluated;determinationofallimpacts,favorableandunfavorable,presentandfuture,onallofsociety;determinationofthevalueofthoseimpacts,bydirectmarketvaluesorindirectpriceestimates;calculationofthenetbenefits,whichisthetotalvalueofpositiveimpactsminusthetotalvalueofnegativeimpacts.Somedoubtifeverythingcanbeanalyzedfromaneconomicpointofview,theyfeariftheeconomicvaluebecomestheonlycriteria,manynoneconomicvaluessuchasbeautyandcleanlinesscannotbejustifiediftheyarenotassignedtoeconomicvalue.Butdifficultiesexistwhenassigningspecificvaluetoenvironmentalresources,whileculturalandsocioeconomicdifferencescouldcausethelessdevelopedcountrytooptformorejobsthanlesspollution.Moreover,itiscrucialtodecideduringtheprocesswhichpreferencesaremostimportant,butsometimesitisneglectedwhencostisspreadoveralargepopulationandwhenitconcernedthebenefitsandcostsforfuturegenerations.Accordingtoitsdefinition,sustainabledevelopmentreflectstheobjectivesofeconomicdevelopmentandenvironmentalstewardship.Itiscomposedoffivecharacteristics:renewability,substitution,interdependence,adaptabilityandinstitutionalcommitment.Whiledebatesgooverwhethereconomicgrowthmustbesacrificedinordertopreventfurtherdeteriorationofenvironment,weshouldtransformtheapproachtoeconomicpolicy,andpromotethetransferofmodernandenvironmentallysoundtechnologytodevelopingcountries.Anotherobstacleisthedisparitiesofrichandpoorpeopleinanationaswellasrichandpoornations.Therefore,developednationsshouldactaspioneers:investinrelatedresearchandapplynewtechniqueswhichpromotesustainabledevelopment.Firstly,theloggingoperationmayremovesomanytreesfromhillsidethatrunoffdestroysstreamsandcausemudslides,butthecostistransferredtothepublic.Secondly,industriesthatnolongerexistleftthousandsofhazardouswastesites,andtheresponsibilityofcleanupfellonthegovernmentandthetaxpayers.Stripminingistypicalforthevarietyofexternalenvironmentalcosts.Pollution-preventioncosts,onepartofpollutioncontrolcosts,arethoseincurredinprivatesectororbygovernmenttoentirelyorpartiallypreventthepollutionthatwouldotherwiseresultfromproductionorconsumption.Wheneveryonesharesownershipofaresource,thereisastrongtendencytooverexploitandmisusethatresource.Thecommonpropertyresourcehasliterallynoowner,andifyoudonotuseit,someoneelsewould,therefore,eventhougheveryoneknowstheeventualresult,theyallchoosetomakeuseofitasmuchaspossible.Theecosphereisonebigcommonsstockedwithair,waterandirreplaceablemineralresources,andeachnationattemptstoexploitandextractasmuchfrom“commons”aspossibleregardlessofothernations.AnotherexampleisthesharedfishinginGreatLakesregion.Commercialfisheries,recreationalfishers,NativeAmericantribalfishingandregulatoryagencieshavetriedhardtohalttheoverexploitationoffisheryresources.Worsestill,thefishingzonesareoftennotdesignedfromanecosystemapproach.Onanindividuallevel,peoplearefullyawareofairpollution,yettheycontinuetodriveautomobilesanddon’tmindswitchingtobiggercarsorpurchasingmorecars.Debt-for-natureexchangesareaninnovativemechanismforaddressingthedebtissuewhileencouraginginvestmentinconservationandsustainabledevelopment.Itworkslikethis:theconservationorganizationbuysthedebtfromthecreditoratadiscount;althoughthecreditorreceivesonlypartialpaymentoftheinitialloan,somereturnisbetterthanatotalloss;thedebtorcountryhasthedebtremovedandisrelievedofthehugeburdenofpayinginterestonthedebt;inexchange,theconservationorganizationrequiresthedebtorcountrytospendmoneyonappropriateconservationandsustainabledevelopmentprojects.Subsidiesincludeconsumerrebatesforpurchasesofenvironmentallyfriendlygoods,loansforbusinessesplanningtoimplementenvironmentalproducts.Governmentcanpayfarmerstoencouragethemtopermanentlytakehighlyerodablelandfromproductionandreducetheerosionandbuildupsedimentinlocalstreams.Thesameiswithpurchasingfishermen’sfishingboats.However,someagriculturalsubsidiesmaydistortthepriceoffoodandleadtooverproduction.Market-basedinstrumentsincludeinformationprograms(example:informationtagsonelectricappliancesthatinformthepublicabouttheenergyefficiencyoftheproduct)tradableemissionpermits,emissionfeesandtaxes(thepollutiontaxsysteminChinathatimposesnoncompliancefeesondischargethatexceedstandardsandassessesfinesandotherchargesonviolationsofregulations)deposit-refundprogramsandperformancebonds.Lifecycleanalysisistoassesstheenvironmentaleffectsduringallstagesinproductchain:acquisitionofrawmaterial,manufacturingprocesses,transportation,consumeruse,disposal.Itsextensionisextendedproductresponsibility,andtheResponsibleCareprogramisoneofthebestexamples.Peopleareoftenwillingtoacceptriskfromfamiliardeathcausessuchascaraccidentsandfluthanthosedramaticandsensationalcauses.Theytendtoacceptvoluntaryriskslikedrinkingalcoholthaninvoluntaryoneslikenuclearweapons,familiartechnologieslikedamsthanneweroneslikegeneticengineering.Renewableresourcesincludesoil,vegetation,animals,airandwater.Nonrenewableresourcesincludeironore,fossilfuelsandmountainouslandscapes..Itisbecauseenvironmentalcostsmaynotberecognizedimmediately,asintheColoradoRiverdamshows,theecosystemhasacomplexsystemofinterrelationshipsandthedamageonenvironmentcantakearelativelongtimetoaccumulateandbecomeeminentoncertainlevelsorindicators.A“takeback”meanstakingtheproductbackfordisposaltotheplaceitwasmanufacturedandforcethecompanytothinkhardandbeenvironmentallyresponsibleforproduction.SBLRBRAisthelawthatprovidedincentivesforsmallbusinessestodevelopbrownfields,whichareperceivedtohaveenvironmentalliabilities.Itprovidedliabilityprotection,fundingandtaxincentivestoencouragesmallbusinessestorevitalizethebrownfields.Itisbecausetheyweightheriskswiththecoststoeliminatethoserisks,andmakedecisionsbasedontheirdistinctfinancialstatus.Sometimestheyevenhavebasicdifferenceindefiningtheriskandthereforetheytoleratedifferencelevelsofrisks.Itisastreamlineddecision-makingprocessforimplementingcorrectiveactioninaconsistentmannertoprotectecologicalresourcesinchemicalreleasesites.Itprovidesaframeworkforsitesthatdonotorcannotcomplywithregulatoryprogramsortoformanintegratedapproachwhenvariousregulatoryprogramsapply.Perceptionplaysanimportantroleinourunderstandingofenvironmentalhealthandsafetyissues.Theasbestosfearshowsthattheriskestimatesareoftendifferentbetweenexpertsandpublic.Thepeopleperceivetheriskwithdifferentcriteriaandarriveattheirownconclusion,yettheydonottrustexpertstomakedecisionsalone.Governmentsneedtodecidewhethertofocusonwherethereisthemostimpactonhumanwell-beingordealwiththeproblemspeoplearemostworriedabout.People,ontheotherhand,shouldbesuppliedwithmoredatatoenablethemtomakemoreinformedjudgments.Weshouldbewiseandcarefulwhenformingourperceptionofrisksasitmayin