一個(gè)英語生的文學(xué)導(dǎo)論課筆記

AnintroductiontoliteratureLiterature一、Whatisliterature?LiteraturecomesfromLatin"litterae",meaning"letter"inEnglish.Thewordliteratureliterallymeans"acquaintancewithletters"andtheterm"letters"issometimesusedtosignify"literature,"asinthefiguresofspeech"artsandletters"and"manofletters."Generalmeanings?①publishedwritingsinaparticularstyleonaparticularsubject(publications,books,brochuresandsoon)②creativewritingofrecognizedartisticvalue(artisticandliterarywritings)③theprofessionorartofawriter(vocation)④thehumanisticstudyofabodyofliterature(subject)⑤musicalproduct⑥knowledgeorlearning⑦reading(supplementaryliterature)ACrazyActLiteratureisaboutwritinginaparticularcountryofaperiod,allovertheworldingeneral.Literatureisawritingwhichhasclaimedtoconsiderundergroundofbeautyofform,andemotionaleffect.(Aestheticism)Literatureisallthewritingsthathavepermanentvalue,excellentformandgreatemotionaleffect.Literatureisawritinghavingexcellenceofformorexpression,andexpressingideasofpermanenceofuniversalinterest.(criticalmind)Adevelopingterm.AestheticismAestheticism(ortheAestheticMovement)wasa19thcenturyEuropeanartmovementthatemphasizedaestheticvaluesmorethansocio-politicalthemesforliterature,fineart,thedecorativearts,andinteriordesign.Generally,itrepresentsthesametendenciesthatsymbolismordecadencerepresentedinFrance,andmaybeconsideredtheBritishversionofthesamestyle.Itwaspartoftheanti-19thcenturyreactionandhadpost-Romanticorigins,andassuchanticipatesmodernism.Itwasafeatureofthelate19thcenturyfromabout1868toabout1900.TheartistsandwritersofAestheticstyleusedtheslogan"ArtforArt'sSake"(藝術(shù)是純粹的),tendedtoprofessthattheArtsshouldproviderefinedsensuouspleasure,ratherthanconveymoralorsentimentalmessages.Instead,theybelievedthatArtdidnothaveanydidacticpurpose;itneedonlybebeautiful.TheAesthetesdevelopedacultofbeauty,whichtheyconsideredthebasicfactorofart.LifeshouldcopyArt,theyasserted.Theyconsiderednatureascrudeandlackingindesignwhencomparedtoart.InBritainthebestrepresentativeswereOscarWildeandAlgernonCharlesSwinburne,alsoincludingJohnKeatsandPercyByssheShelley,greatlyinfluencedbytheFrenchSymbolists.OscarWilde(1856-1900):a.anIrishplaywright,anaestheteadvocating“artforart’ssake”.b.Hislanguageisconcise,wittyandsharp.Hecriticizesthehypocrisyandcorruptionoftheupperclass.Hisattacksaremorelikejokes.c.LadyWindermere’sFan,AWomanofNoImportance,AnIdealHusbandandTheImportanceofBeingEarnestAdevelopingterm.Whatisliterature?Thedefinitionof14thcentury:Itmeanspolitelearningthroughreading.Amanofliteratureoramanofletters=amanofwidereading,“l(fā)iteracy”Thedefinitionof18thcentury:practiceandprofessionofwritingThedefinitionof19thcentury:thehighskillsofwritinginthespecialcontextofhighimaginationRobertFrost’sdefinition:performanceinwordsModerndefinition:Wecandefineliteratureaslanguageartisticallyusedtoachieveidentifiableliteraryqualitiesandtoconveymeaningfulmessages.Literatureischaracterizedbybeautyofexpressionandformandbyuniversalityintellectualandemotionalappeal.DifferentIdeasLiteratureisimitation.Literatureisfunction.Literatureisanexpressionofemotions.(imagism意象派)Literatureisliterature.（payattentiontoitsform）ImagismItisaMovementinU.S.andEnglishpoetrycharacterizedbytheuseofconcretelanguageandfiguresofspeech,modernsubjectmatter,metricalfreedom,andavoidanceofromanticormysticalthemes,aimingatclarityofexpressionthroughtheuseofprecisevisualimages.ItgrewoutoftheSymbolistMovementin1912andwasinitiallyledbyEzraPound,AmyLowell,andothers.TheImagistmanifestocameoutin1912showedthreeImagistpoeticprinciples:directtreatmentofthe“thing”（nofuss,frill,orornament）,exclusionofsuperfluouswords（precisionandeconomyofexpression）,therhythmofthemusicalphraseratherthanthesequenceofametronome（freeverseformandmusic）.Pounddefinedanimageasthatwhichpresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime,andlaterheextendedthisdefinitionwhenhestatedthatanimagewas“avortexorclusteroffusedideas,endowedwithenergy.”GenerallyanImagist’simagerepresentsamomentofrevealedtruth,truthrevealedbyaphysicalobjectpresentedandseenassuch.AnImagistpoem,therefore,oftencontainsasingledominantimage,oraquicksuccessionofrelatedimages.Itseffectismeanttobeinstantaneous.Forexample:InaStationoftheMetroTheapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd;Petalsonawet,blackbough.人群中幽然浮現(xiàn)的一張張臉龐，黝黑的濕樹枝上的一片片花瓣。Abouttheabovepoem:The“Metro”istheundergroundrailwayofParis.Inthisbriefpoem,Poundusesthefewestpossiblewordstoconveyanaccurateimage,accordingtotheprinciplesofthe“Imagists”.Hetriestorenderexactlyhisobservationofhumanfacesseeninanundergroundrailwaystation.Heseesthefaces,turnedvariouslytowardlightanddarkness,likeflowerpetalswhicharehalfabsorbedby,halfresisting,thewet,darktextureofabough.Theword“apparition”,withitsdoublemeaning,bindsthetwoaspectsoftheobservationtogether:Apparitionmeaning“appearance”,inthesenseofsomethingwhichappears,orshowsup;somethingwhichcanbeclearlyobserved.Apparitionmeaningsomethingwhichseemsrealbutperhapsisnotreal;somethingghostlywhichcannotbeclearlyobserved.ThisisperhapsthemostfamouspoemwrittenbyEzraPound.1.HisLife:BorninIdahoin1885andraisedinPennsylvania,EzraPoundspentmostofhislifeinEuropeandbecameoneofthe20thcentury'smostinfluential--andcontroversial--poetsintheEnglishlanguage.Poundwasundoubtedlyagenius.Beforehegraduatedfromuniversity,hehadmastered9languagesaswellasEnglishgrammarandliterature.AftercollegeinPennsylvaniaandabriefstintasateacher,in1908PoundtravelledtoVeniceandthentoLondon,whereherefinedhisaestheticsensibilitiesandeditedtheanthologyDesImagistes(1914).PoundchampionedthelikesofT.S.Eliot,WilliamCarlosWilliamsandJamesJoyceand,influencedbyChineseandJapanesepoetry,advocatedfreemeterandamoreeconomicaluseofwordsandimagesinpoeticexpression,leadingtheImagistMovementofpoetry.HemovedtoParisin1920andgotacquaintedwithGertrudeSteinandhercircleoffriends(whichincludedErnestHemingwayandPabloPicasso),thensettledinItalyin1924.EnamoredwithBenitoMussolini,Poundmadeanti-AmericanradiobroadcastsduringWorldWarII.Hewasarrestedasatraitorin1945andinitiallyconfinedinPisa.HewasthensenttotheU.S.,wherehewasdeemedmentallyunfittostandtrialfortreason.Poundwasconfinedfor12yearsinahospital(actuallyprison)forthecriminallyinsaneinWashington.DuringthistimehetranslatedworksofancientGreekandancientChineseliterature.Whileinprison,hewasawardedaprestigiouspoetryprizein1949forhislastCantos.In1958hereturnedtoItaly,wherehecontinuedtowriteandmaketranslationsuntilhediedin1972.2.Hisworks:Poundwrote70booksandover1500articlesinhislife.HismajorworkofpoetryisTheCantos,alongpoemwhichhewroteinsectionsbetween1915and1945.3.Hismasterpiece:TheCantosInthispoem,hetracestheriseandfallofeasternandwesternempires,thedestructioncausedbygreedandmaterialism.HedeploresthecorruptionofAmericaaftertheheroictimeofJefferson,Thelastpart,producedfromhisownsuffering,isthemostmoving.ThereexistedgreatinfluenceofChinesepoetryontheImagistmovement.ImagistsfoundvalueinChinesepoetrywasbecauseChinesepoetryis,byvirtueoftheideographicandpictographicnatureoftheChineselanguage,essentiallyimagisticpoetry.《天凈沙·秋思》馬致遠(yuǎn)枯藤、老樹、昏鴉，小橋、流水、人家，古道、西風(fēng)、瘦馬，夕陽西下，斷腸人在天涯。AutumnEveningcrowsperchonoldtreeswreathedwithwitheredvine,Waterofastreamflowsbyafamilycottagenearatinybridge.Aleanhorsewalksonanancientroadinwesternbreeze,Thesunissettinginthewest,Theheart-brokenoneisattheendoftheEarth.二、Whyshouldwestudyliterature?Itcannourishouremotionallife.Itcanbroadenpeople'sperspectivesontheworldandofferthemknowledgeintheformofinformation.Itcanhelppeopletoescapefromreality.Fornothingbuttheaestheticpleasureofobservinggoodartistryform.Itcanhelpstudentstowriteapaperorpassanexamination.三、Howtostudyliterature?Literatureisnotliterature.HistoricalPerspectives:Biographical-HistoricalandMoral-Philosophical.(DiverseTypesofHistoricisms:includingFeminist,SociologicalorMarxianStudiesofLanguage,LiteratureandTranslation)StructuralistPerspectives:LookingforSystematicDeepStructuresbothinFormandContent.(Semiotics,TGGrammar,Systematic/FunctionalGrammar,Narratology,Freudianpsycho-analysis,RussianFormalism,Anglo-AmericanNewCriticism,Archetypalism,MythCriticism,StructuralMarxism,Ideology)PoststructuralistorPostmodernPerspectives:DeconstructingStructuringBinaries(NoClearDistinctionbetweenFormandContent)[PostmodernFeminism,Postcolonialism,PostmodernNarratologies,NewHistoricism,IdeologicalStudies,DiscourseAnalysis,ReceptionTheories,TraumaStudies,Trans-AtlanticStudies,Transnationalism,Eco-criticism,CulturalPathology,andotherPostmodernisms]1.TheTraditionalApproaches:AnalyticalApproachBefamiliarwiththeelementsofaliterarywork,eg:plot,character,setting,pointofview,structure,style,atmosphere,theme,etc;answersomebasicquestionsaboutthetextitself.ThematicApproach“Whatisthestory,thepoem,theplayortheessayabout?”Historical-BiographicalApproachMoral-PhilosophicalApproach.2.TheFormalisticAppoachStructuralism,Poststructuralism,Semiotics3．ThePsychologicalApproach:Freud4.MythologicalandArchetypalApproach5.FeministApproaches6.SociologicalApproach7.Deconstruction8.Phenomenology,Hermeneutics,ReceptionTheory9.CulturalCriticismAmericanMulticultualismTheNewHistoricism,BritishCulturalMaterialism10.AdditionalApproaches:AristotlianCriticismGenreCriticismRhetoric,Linguistics,andStylisticsTheMarxistApproachEcologicalCriticismPostColonialismFictionI.Whatisfiction?Fictionreferstoanynarrativewhichhasnotactuallyoccurredinthehistoryorinthehistoricalorrealworld,usuallywritteninprose.Itisoftenassociatedwithnovel.ThetermnovelprobablycomesfromtheItalianword"novella",meaning"alittlenewthing"and"tale".紀(jì)實(shí)小說？Novel:alongworkofprosefiction.Novel,asamorerealisticliterarygenre,issometimesdistinguishedinacademicliterarycriticismfromtheromance,butthisdistinctionisnotmaintainedbyallcritics.Novelisdifferentformromanceinthatitismorerealistic,secular,social,psychological,character-centered,andsoon.Romanceconsistof"theConstantLovesandinvincibleCouragesofHeros,Heroins,KingsandQueens,Mortalsofthefirstrank."(imagination)Novels,however,"areofamorefamiliarNature;Comenearus,andrepresenttousIntriguesinPractice,delightuswithAccidentsandoddEvents,butnotsuchasarewhollyunusualorunpresidented,suchwhichbeingnotsodistantfromourBeliefbringalsothepleasurenearerus.RomancesgivemoreWonder,NovelsmoreDelight."(WilliamCongreve)Allinall,fictionisanimaginarybutusuallyplausibleandcomparativelytruthfulprosenarrativewhichdramatizeschangesinhumanrelationship.Theauthordrawshismaterialsfromhisexperiencesandobservationoflife,butshakesthemtohispurposeswhichincludeilluminationofhumanexperience.Romance(heroicliterature)Asaliterarygenreofhighculture,romanceorchivalricromanceisastyleofheroicproseandversenarrativethatwaspopularinthearistocraticcirclesofHighMedievalandEarlyModernEurope.Theywerefantasticstoriesaboutmarvel-filledadventures,oftenofaknighterrantportrayedashavingheroicqualities,whogoesonaquest.Popularliteraturealsodrewonthemesofromance,butwithironic,satiricorburlesqueintent.Romancesreworkedlegends,fairytales,andhistorytosuitthereaders'andhearers'tastes,butbyc.1600theywereoutoffashion.Still,themodernimageof"medieval"ismoreinfluencedbytheromancethanbyanyothermedievalgenre,andthewordmedievalinvokesknights,distresseddamsels,dragons,andotherromantictropes.Modernusageofterm"romance"usuallyrefertotheromancenovel,whichisasubgenrethatfocusesontherelationshipandromanticlovebetweentwopeople;thesenovelsmusthavean"emotionallysatisfyingandoptimisticending."DespitethepopularityofthispopularmeaningofRomance,otherworksarestill,occasionally,referredtoasromancesbecauseoftheirusesofotherelementsdescendedfromthemedievalromance,orfromtheRomanticMovement:larger-than-lifeheroesandheroines,dramaandadventure,marvelsthatmaybecomefantastic,themesofhonorandloyalty,orfairy-tale-likestoriesandstorysettings.Shakespeare'slatercomedies,suchasTheTempestorTheWinter'sTalearesometimescalledthisromances.Modernworksmaydifferentiatefromlove-storyasromanceintodifferentgenres,suchasplanetaryromanceorRuritanianromance.Sciencefictionwas,foratime,termedscientificromance,andgaslampfantasyissometimestermedgaslightromance.II.TypesoffictionCharacter:theKunstlerroman,thespynovel,theBildungsroman(initativenovel)Setting:thehistoricalnovel,thecampusnovelPlot:thedetectivenovelStructure:theepistolarynovel,thepicaresquenovelLength:novel,novella,shortstory,novellet(Stream-of-consciousnessnovel,hypertextnovel,Saganovel...)Künstlerroman藝術(shù)家成長(zhǎng)小說AKünstlerroman,meaning"artist'snovel"inGerman,isanarrativeaboutanartist'sgrowthtomaturity.Itmaybeclassifiedasaspecificsub-genreofBildungsroman;suchawork,usuallyanovel,tendstodepicttheconflictsofasensitiveyouthagainstthevaluesofabourgeoissocietyofhisorhertime.1909JackLondonMartinEden1913D.H.Lawrence'sSonsandLovers1914JamesJoyce'sAPortraitoftheArtistasaYoungMan1920F.ScottFitzgerald'sThisSideofParadise1927VirginiaWoolf'sTotheLighthouseBildungsroman成長(zhǎng)小說，教育小說Bildungsroman,orcoming-of-agestory,orapprenticeshipnovel,ornovelofeducation,arisinginGermany,isaliterarygenrewhichfocusesonthepsychologicalandmoralgrowthoftheprotagonistfromyouthtoadulthood(comingofage),andinwhichcharacterchangeisthusextremelyimportant.Thetermcoming-of-agenovelissometimesusedinterchangeablywithBildungsroman,butitsuseisusuallywiderandlesstechnical.TherearemanyvariationsandsubgenresofBildungsromanthatfocusonthegrowthofanindividual.AnEntwicklungsroman("developmentnovel")isastoryofgeneralgrowthratherthanself-cultivation.AnErziehungsroman("educationnovel")focusesontrainingandformalschooling,whileaKünstlerroman("artistnovel")isaboutthedevelopmentofanartistandshowsagrowthoftheself.ABildungsromantellsaboutthegrowingupofasensitivepersonwhoislookingforanswersandexperience.Thegenreevolvedfromfolkloretalesofadunceoryoungestsongoingoutintheworldtoseekhisfortune.Usuallyinthebeginningofthestorythereisanemotionallosswhichmakestheprotagonistleaveonhisjourney.InaBildungsroman,thegoalismaturity,andtheprotagonistachievesitgraduallyandwithdifficulty.Thegenreoftenfeaturesamainconflictbetweenthemaincharacterandsociety.Typically,thevaluesofsocietyaregraduallyacceptedbytheprotagonistandheisultimatelyacceptedintosociety–theprotagonist'smistakesanddisappointmentsareover.Insomeworks,theprotagonistisabletoreachoutandhelpothersafterhavingachievedmaturity.JaneEyre,byCharlotteBronte(1847)DavidCopperfield,byCharlesDickens(1850)GreatExpectations,byCharlesDickens(1860-1861)AdventuresofHuckleberryFinn,byMarkTwain(1884)ThePictureofDorianGray,byOscarWilde(1890)TheCatcherintheRye,byJ.D.Salinger(1951)Goodbye,Columbus,byPhilipRoth(1959)EepistolaryNovel書信體小說Anepistolarynovelisanovelwrittenasaseriesofdocuments.Theusualformisletters,althoughdiaryentries,newspaperclippingsandotherdocumentsaresometimesused.Recently,electronic"documents"suchasrecordingsandradio,blogs,ande-mailshavealsocomeintouse.Theepistolaryformcanaddgreaterrealismtoastory,becauseitmimicstheworkingsofreallife.Itisthusabletodemonstratedifferingpointsofviewwithoutrecoursetothedeviceofanomniscientnarrator.SaulBellow'snovelHerzog(1964)islargelywritteninletterformat.Thesearebothrealandimaginedletters,writtenbytheprotagonistMosesE.Herzogtofamilymembers,friendsandfamousfigures.Picaresquenovel流浪漢小說(例:唐吉柯德)Miguelde’Cervantes流浪漢小說鼻祖（DonQuixotedelaMancha）Thepicaresquenovelisapopularsub-genreofprosefictionwhichisusuallysatiricalanddepicts,inrealisticandoftenhumorousdetail,theadventuresofaroguishherooflowsocialclasswholivesbyhiswitsinacorruptsociety.ThisstyleofnoveloriginatedinsixteenthcenturySpainandflourishedthroughoutEuropeintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.Itcontinuestoinfluencemodernliterature.Stream-of-consciousnessnovel意識(shí)流小說Inliterarycriticism,streamofconsciousnessisanarrativemodethatseekstoportrayanindividual'spointofviewbygivingthewrittenequivalentofthecharacter'sthoughtprocesses,eitherinalooseinteriormonologue,orinconnectiontohisorheractions.Theterm"StreamofConsciousness"wastakenfromthebook"ThePrinciplesofPsychology".Stream-of-consciousnesswritingisusuallyregardedasaspecialformofinteriormonologueandischaracterizedbyassociativeleapsinsyntaxandpunctuationthatcanmaketheprosedifficulttofollow.Streamofconsciousnessandinteriormonologuearedistinguishedfromdramaticmonologue,wherethespeakerisaddressinganaudienceorathirdperson,whichisusedchieflyinpoetryordrama.Instreamofconsciousness,thespeaker'sthoughtprocessesaremoreoftendepictedasoverheardinthemind(oraddressedtooneself);itisprimarilyafictionaldevice.Thetermwasintroducedtothefieldofliterarystudiesfromthatofpsychology,whereitwascoinedbyphilosopherandpsychologistWilliamJames.Streamofconsciousnessisthecontinuousflowofsense‐perceptions,thoughts,feelings,andmemoriesinthehumanmindoraliterarymethodofrepresentingablendingofmentalprocessesinfictionalcharacters,usuallyinanunpunctuatedordisjointedformofinteriormonologue.Thetermisoftenusedasasynonymforinteriormonologue,buttheycanalsobedistinguished,intwoways.Inthefirst(psychological)sense,thestreamofconsciousnessisthesubject‐matterwhileinteriormonologueisthetechniqueforpresentingit.Inthesecond(literary)sense,streamofconsciousnessisaspecialstyleofinteriormonologue:whileaninteriormonologuealwayspresentsacharacter'sthoughts‘directly’,withouttheapparentinterventionofasummarizingandselectingnarrator,itdoesnotnecessarilyminglethemwithimpressionsandperceptions,nordoesitnecessarilyviolatethenormsofgrammar,syntax,andlogic;butthestream‐of‐consciousnesstechniquealsodoesoneorbothofthesethings.Animportantdeviceofmodernistfictionanditslaterimitators,thetechniquewaspioneeredbyJamesJoyceinUlysses(1922),andfurtherdevelopedbyVirginiaWoolfinMrs.Dalloway(1925)andWilliamFaulknerinTheSoundandtheFury(1928).Hypertextnovel超文本小說Hypertextistextdisplayedonacomputerorotherelectronicdevicewithreferencestoothertextthatthereadercanimmediatelyaccess,usuallybyamouseclickorkeypresssequence.Apartfromrunningtext,hypertextmaycontaintables,imagesandotherpresentationaldevices.HypertextistheunderlyingconceptdefiningthestructureoftheWorldWideWeb.Itisaneasy-to-useandflexibleformattoshareinformationovertheInternet.Saganovel大型系列小說Asaganovelisanovelamongvariousliterarynovelswhichisencompassingthewidescopesofstoriesandnarrativessuchasreligioussaga,nationalsaga,familysaga,andhumansaga,etc.ThemajorexampleofasaganovelinEnglishliteratureisGeorgeEliot'sMiddlemarch.IntheUS,PearlS.Buck'sTheGoodEarthandMargaretMitchell'sGonewiththeWindbelongtothecategoryofsaganovels.However,theBritishandAmericanSagasareusuallyunderestimatedmorethanmiddle-sizednovelsinacademicinstitutionsdespitetheirpublicpopularity.InChina,LoGuanzhong(LoKuanchung)'sSanguozhiyanyi(RomanceoftheThreeKingdoms)isthemostrepresentativeandwell-knownsaganovelsincethe14thcenturyasoneofthefourgreatclassicalnovelsinChina.ADreamofRedMansions(TheStoryoftheStone)PilgrimagetotheWest(JourneytotheWest)HeroesofMarshes(WaterMargins)RomanceoftheThreeKingdomsIII.Historyoffiction.(4-6)theearly14thcenturythemid-17thcentury——thefirsttruenovelFrance,thedevelopmentofarefinedshortnovelthe18thcenturyWalterScott,歷史小說經(jīng)典作家,movedfromromanticismtorealismthe19thcenturyThe19thcenturywasanageofconversionfromatraditionpre-modernstatetoamodernindustrialsociety.the20thcenturyTherearoseamoredeliberatekindofrealismcalledneutralismwhichaimedtoprovideaprecisedescriptionofactualcircumstancesofhumanlifeinminutedetail.Infiction,theestablishedchronologicaldevelopmentwaschallengedbyJosephConradandWilliamFaulkner,whileJamesJoyceandVirginiaWoolfattemptedstream-of-consciousness.IV．ElementsoffictionPlotStructureCharacterSettingPointofviewThemestylePlotTraditionally,plotsariseoutofconflict,eitherinternalorexternal.Whenastoryincludesaninternalconflict,theprotagonist(主角)oftenundergoesaconflictwithinhimselforherself.四種關(guān)系：人與社會(huì)、人與自然、人與人、人與自我、（人與宗教）Anauthor’scarefularrangementofincidentsinanarrativetoachieveadesiredeffect.Plotisdefinedastheeventsthatmakeupthestory,particularlyastheyrelatetooneanotherinapattern,inasequence,throughcauseoreffect,orbycoincidence.Oneisgenerallyinterestedinhowwellthispatternofeventsaccomplishessomeartisticoremotionaleffect.Plotandstory.Plotandstructure.Plotisthepatternofeventsandsituationinanarrativework.Itkeepsusinterestedandturningpagestofindoutwhatwillhappennext.Differentfromthestorythatindicatesthe“rawmaterial”ofevents,theplotistheselectedversionofeventsinacertainorderorduration.Aneffectiveplotusuallyfollowsthemodeofcauseandeffectbetweenincidents.Astory’sstructurecanbeexaminedinrelationtoitsplot.Inexaminingstructure,welookforpatterns,fortheshapethatthestoryasawholepossesses.Ifplotisthesequenceofunfoldingaction,structureisthedesignorformofthecompleteaction.Plotandstructuretogetherrevealaspectsofthestory’sartisticdesign.thefocusofplot——conflict.1)VirginiaWoolf’sTheWaves2)ThomasHardy’sTessofthed’Urbervilles（壞境悲劇、性格悲劇、命運(yùn)悲劇）3)WilliamFaulkner’sARoseforEmilyTheWavesTheWaves,morethananyofVirginiaWoolf'snovels,conveysthecomplexitiesofhumanexperience.Tracingthelivesofagroupoffriends,TheWavesfollowstheirdevelopmentfromchildhoodtoyouthandmiddleage.Whilesocialevents,individualachievementsanddisappointmentsformitsnarrative,thenovelismostremarkablefortherichpoeticlanguagethatconveystheinnerlifeofitscharacters:theiraspirations,theirtriumphsandregrets,theirawarenessofunityandisolation.Separatelyandtogether,theyquerytherelationshipofpasttopresent,andthemeaningoflifeitself.Woolf'snovelisconcernedwiththeindividualconsciousnessandthewaysinwhichmultipleconsciousnessescanweavetogether.It’sdifferentfromaBildungsromaninthattheselfmayverywellbeconsideredtobeitsownsociety.Thedifficultyofassigninggenretothisnoveliscomplicatedbythefactthatobliteratestraditionaldistinctionsbetweenproseandpoetry,allowingthenoveltoflowbetweensixnotdissimilarinteriormonologues.Thebooksimilarlybreaksdowntraditionalboundariesbetweenpeople,andWoolfherselfwroteinherthatthesixwerenotmeanttobeseparate"characters"atall,butratherfacetsofconsciousnessilluminatingasenseofcontinuity.Eventhename"novel"maynotaccuratelydescribethecomplexformof.Woolfherselfcalleditnotanovelbuta"playpoem."Tessofthed’UrbervillesTessoftheD’UrbervilleswassubtitledAPureWomanandpublishedin1891.ItisoneofHardy’ssaddesttalesofruraltroubles.TessisthedaughterofthepoorJohnDurbeyfieldwholearnfromthevillageparsonthathisfamilyisrelatedtoancientnobility,beingthelastofthefamilytheD’Urbervilles.Intryingtomakeuseofthisconnection,Joan–John’swife-suggeststhatTesspursuethesonofthelocalfamilyofMrsD’Urberville.AsitturnsouttheMrsD’UrbervillehasmerelytakenthenameforconveniencebutTessbecomesinvolvedwith