功能語法SFG-cohesionandcoher課件

功能語法SFG13cohesion_and_coherence功能語法SFG13cohesion_and_coheren1Introduction:Cohesionandcoherencearetermsusedindiscourseanalysisandtextlinguisticstodescribethepropertiesofwrittentexts.Advertisinglanguagetendsnottouseclearmarkersofcohesion,butisinterpretedasbeingcoherent.Howabout“語音室使用有關(guān)規(guī)定”？Introduction:Cohesionandco2Definitions:Coherence:Thewaysatextmakessensetoreaders&writerthroughtherelevanceandaccessibilityofitsconfigurationofconcepts,ideasandtheories.Cohesion:

Thegrammaticalandlexicalrelationshipbetweendifferentelementsofatextwhichholdittogether.Definitions:Coherence:3Coherencevs.CohesionCoherence:verygeneralprincipleofinterpretationoflanguageincontextfewerformallinguisticfeaturese.gvocabularychoicerelationshipsdealwithtextasawholebasedonprimarilysemanticrelationshipsCohesion:formallinguisticfeaturese.grepetition,referencesemanticrelationshipsbetweensentencesandwithinsentencesdeterminedbylexicallyandgrammaticallyovertintersentential

relationshipsCoherencevs.CohesionCoherenc4Isitcoherentornot?TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeople'sbodiesbymakingmummiesofthem.Mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeendiscoverednearlyintact.Theskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacialfeaturesofthemummieswereevident.Itispossibletodiagnosethediseasetheysufferedinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritionaldeficiencies.Theprocesswasremarkablyeffective.Sometimesapparentwerethefatalafflictionsofthedeadpeople:amiddle-agedkingdiedfromablowonthehead,andpoliokilledachildking.Mummificationconsistedofremovingtheinternalorgans,applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthenwrappingthebodyinlayersofbandages.Isitcoherentornot?Thean5Belowisthesameparagraphrevisedforcoherence.Italicsindicatespronounsandrepeatedkeywords,boldindicatestransitionaltag-words,andunderliningindicatesparallelstructures.

TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeople'sbodiesbymakingmummiesofthem.Inshort,mummificationconsistedofremovingtheinternalorgans,applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthenwrappingthebodyinlayersofbandages.And

theprocesswasremarkablyeffective.Indeed,mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeendiscoverednearlyintact.Theirskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacialfeaturesarestillevident.

Theirdiseasesinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritionaldeficiencies,arestilldiagnosable.Even

theirfatalafflictionsarestillapparent:amiddle-agedkingdiedfromablowonthehead;achildkingdiedfrompolio.

Belowisthesameparagraphre6

CohesivetieAtextisasemanticunitwhosepartsarelinkedtogetherbyexplicitcohesiveties.

Cohesivetie:asemanticand/orlexico-grammaticrelationbetweenanelementintextandsomeotherelementthatiscrucialtointerpretetionofit.

Cohesivetiesacross‘sentenceboundaries’arethosewhichallowsequencesofsentencestobeunderstoodastext.Cohesionthereforedefinesatextastext.

CohesivetieAtextisasema7

ReferenceSubstitutionEllipsisConjunctionLexicalCohesioncohesivedevicesthatsignalcoherenceintexts:GrammaticalCohesion

cohesivedevicesthatsign8ReferenceReference:

Replacementofwordsandexpressionswithpro-forms.

e.gpronouns,pro-modifiers.Threetypesofreference:PersonalDemonstrativeComparative

ReferenceReference:9Personal(communicationgoalofreferent)Demonstrative(proximityofreferent)Comparative(similaritytoprecedingreferent)REFERENCEReferencePersonal(communicationgoalo10

Typesofreference:

PersonalReferenceareferencebymeansofperson,includes;Personalpronouns(e.g.,I,he,she)Possesivepronouns(e.g.,mine,hers,his)Possesivedeterminers(e.g.,my,your,her)e.g.

Englishisconsideredaninternationallanguage.Itisaspokenbymorethan260millionpeopleallovertheworld.

Theytoldmeyouhadgonebyhercar

Typesofreference:

Persona11

DemonstrativeReferenceessentiallyaformofverbalpointingthespeakeridentifiesthereferentbylocatingitonascaleofproximity.Ingeneral,

this,theseandhereimplyproximitytothespeaker;

that,thoseandthereimplydistancefromthespeaker.DemonstrativeReferenceesse12

DemonstrativeReferenceLikepersonals,thedemonstrativesregularlyreferexophoricallytosomethingwithinthecontextofsituaiton.e.g.Howdoyoulikeacruiseinthatyacht?Picktheseup!DemonstrativeReferenceLike13

ComparativeReferencecontributestotextualcohesionbysettinguparelationofcontrastexpressedbysuchadjactivesassame,identical,equal,adjectivesinacomparativedegreesuchasbigger,fasterandadverbssuchasidentically,likewise,so,suchetc.e.g.Shehasasimilarlyfurnishedroomtomine.Thelittledogbarkedasnoisilyasthebigone.Theyaskedmethreeequallydifficultquestions.ComparativeReferencecontrib14

REFERENCE(Situational){EXO}{PHORA}(Textual){

ENDO}{PHORA}{ANA}{PHORA}{CATA}{PHORA}HallidayandHasancallwithintextcohesivetiesendophoric,andreferences,itemsoutsidethetext

exophoric:OUT(SIDE)IN(SIDE)REFERENCE(Situational)(Textu15

HallidayandHasancallwithintextcohesivetiesendophoric,

e.g.Washsixapples.Putthemintoadish.

anexampleofanendophoricreferencewhenthemreferredbacktoapples.Referencesignalstothereaderwhatkindofinformationistoberetrieved.

Them,therefore,signalstothereaderthatheorsheneedstolookbackinthetexttofinditsmeaning.

HallidayandHasancallwithi16Endophora

e.g.WewenttoDevonforaholiday.Thepeoplewestayedwithhadfourchildren.Theeldestgirlwasaboutnine.Thefirsttheiscataphoricsincethereisnolexicalrelationbetweenpeopleandanythingintheprecedingsentence.

ThesecondtheisbothcataphoricandanaphoricCataphoric:eldestdefinesgirl,Anaphoric:girlisrelatedtochildrenAnaphora(toprecedingtext)Cataphora(tofollowingtext)Endophora

e.g.WewenttoDevo17HallidayandHasancallreferences,itemsoutsidethetext

exophoric:e.g.Forhe'sajollygoodfellow

Andsosayallofus.

Asreadersoutsideofthisenvironment,weareunfamiliarwithwhotheheisthatisbeingreferredto,But,mostlikely,thepeopleinvolvedareawareofthehe.Whenthemeaningisnotexplicitfromthetextitself,butisobvioustothoseinaparticularsituation.Thisiscalledexophoricreference.HallidayandHasancallrefere18SubstitutionSubstitution:

Replacementofoneitembyanother.Arelationinthewordingratherthaninthemeaning.

somewhatdifferentfromreferenceinthatanotherword

takestheplaceofthethingthatisbeingdiscussed.

TypesofSubstitution:

NominalVerbalClausal

SubstitutionSubstitution:19

TypesofSubstitution

NominalSubstitution:

Nominalsubstitutes;

fornounhead:one/onesfornominalcomplement:thesameforattribute:soe.g.Johnseemstobeintelligent.–Ishereallyso?

TypesofSubstitution

Nomi20

NominalSubstitution:Thepronounoneisoftenusedinnominalreferences.

e.g.Let'sgoandseethebears.Thepolaronesareoveronthatrock.

Inthissentence,onesistakingtheplaceofbearsintheprevioussentence.e.g.Winterisoftensodamp.Thesameistrueforthe

summer.NominalSubstitution:Thepr21

TheverbalsubstituteinEnglishisdo.Verbalsubstitutes;forverb:do,be,haveforprocess:dothesame/likewiseforproposition:doso,beso

e.g.Thewordsdidnotcometothesameastheyusedtodo.e.g.Ifinallycalledonhim.Ihavewantedtodo(so)foralongtime.VerbalSubstitution:TheverbalsubstituteinEngl22

ClausalSubstitution:Theclausalsubstitutes;

forpositive:so

fornegative:not

Inclausalsubstitutiontheentireclauseispresupposed,andthecontrastingelementisoutsidetheclause.ClausalSubstitution:Thecl23

ClausalSubstitution:e.g.Istheregoingtobeanearthquake?Itsaysso.

so

presupposesthewholeoftheclausethere’sgoingtobeanearthquakeandcontrastiveenvironmentisprovidedbythesayswhichisoutsideit.e.g.Haseveryonegonehome?Ihopenot.ClausalSubstitution:e.g.I24EllipsisEllipsis:Deletionofwords,expressionsorphrases,Simply‘substitutionbyzero’.

TypesofEllipsis:NominalVerbalClausalEllipsisEllipsis:25

TypesofEllipsis

NominalEllipsis:

ellipsiswithinthenominalgroup.e.g.Herearethirteencards.Takeany(-).Nowgivemeanythree(-).e.g.Somesayonething,otherssayanother(-).e.g.Whichhatwillyouwear?Thisisthebest(-).e.g.Haveanotherchocolate.Nothanks;thatwasmythird(-).e.g.Smithwasthefirstpersontoleave.Iwasthesecond

(-).TypesofEllipsis

NominalE26

VerbalEllipsis:ellipsiswithintheverbalgroup.e.g.Haveyoubeenswimming?Yes,Ihave.e.g.Whathaveyoubeendoing?Swimming.e.g.Ishecomplaining?Hemaybe;Idon’tcare.e.g.Ihaven’tfinishedityet.Ihopeyou’regoingtohavebytomorrow.e.g.Somewerelaughingandotherscyring.e.g.Wereyoulaughing?NoIwasn’t.e.g.Johncame,didnothe?NO,buthewill.

VerbalEllipsis:ellipsisw27

ClausalEllipsis:ellipsis

inwhichanentireclauseiselidedfromasentence.e.g.Smithwasgoingtotakepartbutsomebodytelephonedandaskedtoseehimurgentlysohehadtowithdraw.-Who?e.g.IkeptquietbecauseMarygetsembarrassedifanyonementionsaboutJohn’sname.Idon’tknowwhy.e.g.Whocouldhavebrokenthosetiles?-Ican’tthinkwho.ClausalEllipsis:ellipsisi28ConjuctionsConjunctions:

awordorgroupofwordsusedtoconnectwords,phrases,orclauses.markcertainrelationsipsbetweenclausesandsentences

Fourcategories:AdditiveAdversativeCausalTemporalConjuctionsConjunctions:29

CategoriesofConjunction

Examples:Forthewholedayheclimbedupthesteepmountainnside,almostwithoutstopping.Andinallthistimehemetnoone.?AdditiveYethewashardlyawareofbeingtired.?AdversativeSobythenighttimethevalleywasfarbelowhim.?CausalThen,asduskfell,hesatdowntorest.?TemporalCategoriesofConjunction

30

TypesofConjunction

AdditivetypeTheadditiveisakindofconjunctiverelationwhichisclosertocoordination.Additivewordsaresuchasand,also,nor,orelse,moreover,inaddition,besides,bytheway,thatis,likewise,similarly,conversely,thus,forinstance.e.g.Myclientsayshedoesnotknowhiswitness.Further,hedenieseverhavingseenher.e.g.Perhapsshemissedhertrain.Orelseshe’schangedhermindandisn’tcoming.TypesofConjunction

Addi31

TypesofConjunction

AdversativetypeThebasicmeaningoftheadversativerelationis‘contrarytoexpectation’.Adversativewordsaresuchasyet,but,however,despitethis,ontheotherhand,infact,instead,eitherway,anyhow,nevertheless,ratheretc.e.g.Allthefigureswerecorrect;they’dbeenchecked.Yetthetotalcameoutwrong.e.g.Wemaybebacktonight;I’mnotsure.Eitherway,justmakeyourselfathome.TypesofConjunction

Adv32TypesofConjunction

CausaltypeCausalrelationinvolvesprimarilyreason,resultandpurposerelationsbetweenthesentences.Causalwordsaresuchasso,thus,hence,therefore,arisingoutofthis,inthatcase,otherwise,because,asaresult(ofthis),onthisbasis,accordingly.e.g.Youarenotleaving,areyou?BecauseI’vegotsomethingtosaytoyou.e.g.Iwasnotinformed.OtherwiseIshouldhavetakensomeaction.TypesofConjunction

Cau33

TypesofConjunction

Temporaltype

Therelationbetweentwosuccessivesentences.Conjunctionsofthistypearesuchasthen,next,afterward,previously,finally,atlast,meanwhile,nextday,first,fromnowon,tosumup,inshort,henceforward,hitherto,uptonow,thistimeetc.e.g.Theweatherclearedjustasthepartyapproachedthesummit.Untilthentheyhadbeennothingofthepanaromaaroundthem.e.g.Atlast,hefinishedtherehersalforhisrole.TypesofConjunction

Tem34CONJUNCTIONS

Coordinating

conjunctionsconnectwords,phrases,orclausesofequalgrammaticalrank.For,and,nor,but,or,yet,soe.g.Iusedphonicsinlearningtoread,andsodidyou.e.g.Thoughheseemedtobetired,hedidnotrefusedtogoout.Subordinatingconjunctionsconnectclausesthatareofsubordinateimportancetothe

independentclauseortosomeelementinthemainclause.

although,except,though,while,if,whetheras,asif,where,wherever,inorderthat,sothat,after,aslongas,assoonas,

before,since,whenetc.CoordinationSubordinationCONJUNCTIONS

Coordinatingcon35LexicalCohesion

LexicalCohesion:

achievedbytheselectionofvocabulary.

TypesofLexicalCohesion:ReiterationCollocation

LexicalCohesionLexicalCohes36

TypesofLexicalCohesion

Reiteration:aformoflexicalcohesionwhichinvolvesrepetition,synonymornearsynonym,superordinateandageneralnoun.e.g.Pollutionofourenvironmenthasoccurredforcenturies,butithasbecomeasignificanthealthproblemonlywithinthelastcentury.Atmosphericpollutioncontributestorespiratorydisease,andtolungcancerinparticular.Otherhealthproblemsdirectlyrelatedtoairpollutantsincludeheartdisease,eyeirritationandsoon.RepetitionTypesofLexicalCohesion

37Reiteration:e.g.Henry’shasboughtanewJaguar.Hepracticallylivesinthecar.Superordinatee.g.Iturnedtothe

ascentofthepeak.Theclimbisperfectlyiseasy.

Synonyme.g.Iturnedtothe

ascentofthepeak.Thethingisperfectlyiseasy.Generalnoune.g.Thereisaboyclimbingthattree.Theladisgoingtofallifhedoesn’ttakecare.Near-SynonymReiteration:e.g.Henry’sh38

Collocation:

Cohesionthatisachievedthroughtheassociationoflexicalitemsthatregularlyco-occur.Theselexicalitemsorwordstendtooccurinsimilarenvironments.Forinstance;hair/comb,reader/writer,door/window,chair/table,north/south,peace/war,bee/honeyetc.e.g.Whydoesthislittleboywriggleallthetime?Girldon’twriggle.

Collocation:Cohesionthat39AnalysisofCoherence"Hello,JamesGleick,"saidAtheotherday(clickhereifyou’resomeoneelse)."Takeapeekatyourbrandnewmusicrecommendations."Ipeeked.Amazon’scomputerspredictedthatIwouldliketheBeastieBoys,Adiemus,FrankSinatra,HarveyDanger,andtheDaveMatthewsBand.Whatanimpressivelist!Allright,Idon’tactuallycareforanyofthese,butstill.Itwasquiteashotinthedark,consideringI’dneverbeentoAmazon’smusicdepartmentbefore.Thisisthewayit’sgoingontheInternet:ifmarketerswantyourmoneyandyourtimeandyour"eyeballs,"theyfeeltheyshouldfigureoutwhoyouareandwhatyoulike.AnalysisofCoherence"Hello,40

AnalysisofCoherence:Repetitionof:Repetitionofpronoun:Pronounreference:Transitionaltag:Pronounreference:Repetitionandparallelform:Pronounreference:Parallelform:AnalysisofCoherence:Repetit41

AnalysisofCoherence:Repetitionof:peekRepetitionofpronoun:IPronounreference:theseTransitionaltag:butstillPronounreference:it,thisRepetitionandparallelform:yourmoneyandyourtimeandyour

eyeballsPronounreference:theyandyouParallelform:whoyouareandwhatyoulikeAnalysisofCoherence:Repetit42References:Halliday&Hasan(1976).CohesioninEnglish.Longman.London&Newyork.Hyland,K.(2006).EnglishforAcademicPurposes.Routledge,GreatBritain.Reid,J.M.TheProcessofComposition.SecondEdition.PrenticeHallRegents.References:Halliday&Hasan(143功能語法SFG13cohesion_and_coherence功能語法SFG13cohesion_and_coheren44Introduction:Cohesionandcoherencearetermsusedindiscourseanalysisandtextlinguisticstodescribethepropertiesofwrittentexts.Advertisinglanguagetendsnottouseclearmarkersofcohesion,butisinterpretedasbeingcoherent.Howabout“語音室使用有關(guān)規(guī)定”？Introduction:Cohesionandco45Definitions:Coherence:Thewaysatextmakessensetoreaders&writerthroughtherelevanceandaccessibilityofitsconfigurationofconcepts,ideasandtheories.Cohesion:

Thegrammaticalandlexicalrelationshipbetweendifferentelementsofatextwhichholdittogether.Definitions:Coherence:46Coherencevs.CohesionCoherence:verygeneralprincipleofinterpretationoflanguageincontextfewerformallinguisticfeaturese.gvocabularychoicerelationshipsdealwithtextasawholebasedonprimarilysemanticrelationshipsCohesion:formallinguisticfeaturese.grepetition,referencesemanticrelationshipsbetweensentencesandwithinsentencesdeterminedbylexicallyandgrammaticallyovertintersentential

relationshipsCoherencevs.CohesionCoherenc47Isitcoherentornot?TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeople'sbodiesbymakingmummiesofthem.Mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeendiscoverednearlyintact.Theskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacialfeaturesofthemummieswereevident.Itispossibletodiagnosethediseasetheysufferedinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritionaldeficiencies.Theprocesswasremarkablyeffective.Sometimesapparentwerethefatalafflictionsofthedeadpeople:amiddle-agedkingdiedfromablowonthehead,andpoliokilledachildking.Mummificationconsistedofremovingtheinternalorgans,applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthenwrappingthebodyinlayersofbandages.Isitcoherentornot?Thean48Belowisthesameparagraphrevisedforcoherence.Italicsindicatespronounsandrepeatedkeywords,boldindicatestransitionaltag-words,andunderliningindicatesparallelstructures.

TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeople'sbodiesbymakingmummiesofthem.Inshort,mummificationconsistedofremovingtheinternalorgans,applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthenwrappingthebodyinlayersofbandages.And

theprocesswasremarkablyeffective.Indeed,mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeendiscoverednearlyintact.Theirskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacialfeaturesarestillevident.

Theirdiseasesinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritionaldeficiencies,arestilldiagnosable.Even

theirfatalafflictionsarestillapparent:amiddle-agedkingdiedfromablowonthehead;achildkingdiedfrompolio.

Belowisthesameparagraphre49

CohesivetieAtextisasemanticunitwhosepartsarelinkedtogetherbyexplicitcohesiveties.

Cohesivetie:asemanticand/orlexico-grammaticrelationbetweenanelementintextandsomeotherelementthatiscrucialtointerpretetionofit.

Cohesivetiesacross‘sentenceboundaries’arethosewhichallowsequencesofsentencestobeunderstoodastext.Cohesionthereforedefinesatextastext.

CohesivetieAtextisasema50

ReferenceSubstitutionEllipsisConjunctionLexicalCohesioncohesivedevicesthatsignalcoherenceintexts:GrammaticalCohesion

cohesivedevicesthatsign51ReferenceReference:

Replacementofwordsandexpressionswithpro-forms.

e.gpronouns,pro-modifiers.Threetypesofreference:PersonalDemonstrativeComparative

ReferenceReference:52Personal(communicationgoalofreferent)Demonstrative(proximityofreferent)Comparative(similaritytoprecedingreferent)REFERENCEReferencePersonal(communicationgoalo53

Typesofreference:

PersonalReferenceareferencebymeansofperson,includes;Personalpronouns(e.g.,I,he,she)Possesivepronouns(e.g.,mine,hers,his)Possesivedeterminers(e.g.,my,your,her)e.g.

Englishisconsideredaninternationallanguage.Itisaspokenbymorethan260millionpeopleallovertheworld.

Theytoldmeyouhadgonebyhercar

Typesofreference:

Persona54

DemonstrativeReferenceessentiallyaformofverbalpointingthespeakeridentifiesthereferentbylocatingitonascaleofproximity.Ingeneral,

this,theseandhereimplyproximitytothespeaker;

that,thoseandthereimplydistancefromthespeaker.DemonstrativeReferenceesse55

DemonstrativeReferenceLikepersonals,thedemonstrativesregularlyreferexophoricallytosomethingwithinthecontextofsituaiton.e.g.Howdoyoulikeacruiseinthatyacht?Picktheseup!DemonstrativeReferenceLike56

ComparativeReferencecontributestotextualcohesionbysettinguparelationofcontrastexpressedbysuchadjactivesassame,identical,equal,adjectivesinacomparativedegreesuchasbigger,fasterandadverbssuchasidentically,likewise,so,suchetc.e.g.Shehasasimilarlyfurnishedroomtomine.Thelittledogbarkedasnoisilyasthebigone.Theyaskedmethreeequallydifficultquestions.ComparativeReferencecontrib57

REFERENCE(Situational){EXO}{PHORA}(Textual){

ENDO}{PHORA}{ANA}{PHORA}{CATA}{PHORA}HallidayandHasancallwithintextcohesivetiesendophoric,andreferences,itemsoutsidethetext

exophoric:OUT(SIDE)IN(SIDE)REFERENCE(Situational)(Textu58

HallidayandHasancallwithintextcohesivetiesendophoric,

e.g.Washsixapples.Putthemintoadish.

anexampleofanendophoricreferencewhenthemreferredbacktoapples.Referencesignalstothereaderwhatkindofinformationistoberetrieved.

Them,therefore,signalstothereaderthatheorsheneedstolookbackinthetexttofinditsmeaning.

HallidayandHasancallwithi59Endophora

e.g.WewenttoDevonforaholiday.Thepeoplewestayedwithhadfourchildren.Theeldestgirlwasaboutnine.Thefirsttheiscataphoricsincethereisnolexicalrelationbetweenpeopleandanythingintheprecedingsentence.

ThesecondtheisbothcataphoricandanaphoricCataphoric:eldestdefinesgirl,Anaphoric:girlisrelatedtochildrenAnaphora(toprecedingtext)Cataphora(tofollowingtext)Endophora

e.g.WewenttoDevo60HallidayandHasancallreferences,itemsoutsidethetext

exophoric:e.g.Forhe'sajollygoodfellow

Andsosayallofus.

Asreadersoutsideofthisenvironment,weareunfamiliarwithwhotheheisthatisbeingreferredto,But,mostlikely,thepeopleinvolvedareawareofthehe.Whenthemeaningisnotexplicitfromthetextitself,butisobvioustothoseinaparticularsituation.Thisiscalledexophoricreference.HallidayandHasancallrefere61SubstitutionSubstitution:

Replacementofoneitembyanother.Arelationinthewordingratherthaninthemeaning.

somewhatdifferentfromreferenceinthatanotherword

takestheplaceofthethingthatisbeingdiscussed.

TypesofSubstitution:

NominalVerbalClausal

SubstitutionSubstitution:62

TypesofSubstitution

NominalSubstitution:

Nominalsubstitutes;

fornounhead:one/onesfornominalcomplement:thesameforattribute:soe.g.Johnseemstobeintelligent.–Ishereallyso?

TypesofSubstitution

Nomi63

NominalSubstitution:Thepronounoneisoftenusedinnominalreferences.

e.g.Let'sgoandseethebears.Thepolaronesareoveronthatrock.

Inthissentence,onesistakingtheplaceofbearsintheprevioussentence.e.g.Winterisoftensodamp.Thesameistrueforthe

summer.NominalSubstitution:Thepr64

TheverbalsubstituteinEnglishisdo.Verbalsubstitutes;forverb:do,be,haveforprocess:dothesame/likewiseforproposition:doso,beso

e.g.Thewordsdidnotcometothesameastheyusedtodo.e.g.Ifinallycalledonhim.Ihavewantedtodo(so)foralongtime.VerbalSubstitution:TheverbalsubstituteinEngl65

ClausalSubstitution:Theclausalsubstitutes;

forpositive:so

fornegative:not

Inclausalsubstitutiontheentireclauseispresupposed,andthecontrastingelementisoutsidetheclause.ClausalSubstitution:Thecl66

ClausalSubstitution:e.g.Istheregoingtobeanearthquake?Itsaysso.

so

presupposesthewholeoftheclausethere’sgoingtobeanearthquakeandcontrastiveenvironmentisprovidedbythesayswhichisoutsideit.e.g.Haseveryonegonehome?Ihopenot.ClausalSubstitution:e.g.I67EllipsisEllipsis:Deletionofwords,expressionsorphrases,Simply‘substitutionbyzero’.

TypesofEllipsis:NominalVerbalClausalEllipsisEllipsis:68

TypesofEllipsis

NominalEllipsis:

ellipsiswithinthenominalgroup.e.g.Herearethirteencards.Takeany(-).Nowgivemeanythree(-).e.g.Somesayonething,otherssayanother(-).e.g.Whichhatwillyouwear?Thisisthebest(-).e.g.Haveanotherchocolate.Nothanks;thatwasmythird(-).e.g.Smithwasthefirstpersontoleave.Iwasthesecond

(-).TypesofEllipsis

NominalE69

VerbalEllipsis:ellipsiswithintheverbalgroup.e.g.Haveyoubeenswimming?Yes,Ihave.e.g.Whathaveyoubeendoing?Swimming.e.g.Ishecomplaining?Hemaybe;Idon’tcar