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Creole

Creole1HistoryofCreole01

ClassificationsofCreole02FeaturesofCreole03contentsHistoryofCreole01Classifica2Part01HistoryofCreolePart01HistoryofCreole3Origin1GeographicDistribution2SocialandPoliticalStatus3Origin1GeographicDistribution4OriginTheEnglishtermcreolecomesfromFrenchcréole,whichiscognatewiththeSpanishtermcriolloandPortuguesecrioulo,alldescendingfromtheverbcriar('tobreed'or'toraise'),allcomingfromLatincreare('toproduce,create').Thespecificsenseofthetermwascoinedinthe16thand17thcentury,duringthegreatexpansioninEuropeanmaritimepowerandtradethatledtotheestablishmentofEuropeancoloniesinothercontinents.OriginTheEnglishtermcreol5Origin

ThetermscriolloandcrioulowereoriginallyqualifiersusedthroughouttheSpanishandPortuguesecoloniestodistinguishthemembersofanethnicgroupwhowerebornandraisedlocallyfromthosewhoimmigratedasadults.Theyweremostcommonlyappliedtonationalsofthecolonialpower,e.g.todistinguishespa?olescriollos(peopleborninthecoloniesfromSpanishancestors)fromespa?olespeninsulares(thosebornintheIberianPeninsula,i.e.Spain).OriginThetermscriolloand6

OriginHowever,inBrazilthetermwasalsousedtodistinguishbetweennegroscrioulos(blacksborninBrazilfromAfricanslaveancestors)andnegrosafricanos(borninAfrica).Overtime,thetermanditsderivatives(Creole,Kréol,Kreyol,Kreyòl(fā),Kriol,Krio,etc.)lostthegenericmeaningandbecamethepropernameofmanydistinctethnicgroupsthatdevelopedlocallyfromimmigrantcommunities.Originally,therefore,theterm"creolelanguage"meantthespeechofanyofthosecreolepeoples.

OriginHowever,inBrazilthe7TheoriesonTheOriginofCreoleATheoriesfocusingonEuropeaninputBTheoriesfocusingonnon-EuropeaninputCDUniversalistapproachesGradualistanddevelopmentalhypothesesTheoriesonTheOriginofCreo8TheoriesfocusingonEuropeaninputAMonogenetictheoryofpidginsandcreolesBDomesticoriginhypothesisCEuropeandialectoriginhypothesisDForeignertalkandbabytalkEImperfectL2learningTheoriesfocusingonEuropean9Theoriesfocusingonnon-EuropeaninputTheoriesfocusingonthesubstrate,ornon-European,languagesattributesimilaritiesamongstcreolestothesimilaritiesofAfricansubstratelanguages.Thesefeaturesareoftenassumedtobetransferredfromthesubstratelanguagetothecreoleortobepreservedinvariantfromthesubstratelanguageinthecreolethroughaprocessofrelexification:thesubstratelanguagereplacesthenativelexicalitemswithlexicalmaterialfromthesuperstratelanguagewhileretainingthenativegrammaticalcategories.Theoriesfocusingonnon-Europ10GradualistanddevelopmentalhypothesesOneclassofcreolesmightstartaspidgins,rudimentarysecondlanguagesimprovisedforusebetweenspeakersoftwoormorenon-intelligiblenativelanguages.KeithWhinnom(inHymes(1971))suggeststhatpidginsneedthreelanguagestoform,withone(thesuperstrate)beingclearlydominantovertheothers.Thelexiconofapidginisusuallysmallanddrawnfromthevocabulariesofitsspeakers,invaryingproportions.Morphologicaldetailslikewordinflections,whichusuallytakeyearstolearn,areomitted;thesyntaxiskeptverysimple,usuallybasedonstrictwordorder.

Inthisinitialstage,allaspectsofthespeech—syntax,lexicon,andpronunciation—tendtobequitevariable,especiallywithregardtothespeaker'sbackground.Gradualistanddevelopmentalh11Universalistapproaches

Universalistmodelsstresstheinterventionofspecificgeneralprocessesduringthetransmissionoflanguagefromgenerationtogenerationandfromspeakertospeaker.Theprocessinvokedvaries:ageneraltendencytowardssemantictransparency,firstlanguagelearningdrivenbyuniversalprocess,orgeneralprocessofdiscourseorganization.

Universalistapproaches12

GeographicDistribution

AsaconsequenceofcolonialEuropeantradepatterns,mostoftheknownEuropean-basedcreolelanguagesaroseincoastalareasintheequatorialbeltaroundtheworld,includingtheAmericas,westernAfrica,GoaalongthewestofIndia,andalongSoutheastAsiauptoIndonesia,Singapore,Macau,HongKong,thePhilippines,Malaysia,SeychellesandOceania.

Manyofthosecreolesarenowextinct,butothersstillsurviveintheCaribbean,thenorthandeastcoastsofSouthAmerica(TheGuyanas),westernAfrica,Australia(seeAustralianKriollanguage),andintheIndianOcean.Ge13

SocialandPoliticalStatusBecauseofthegenerallylowstatusoftheCreolepeoplesintheeyesofpriorEuropeancolonialpowers,creolelanguageshavegenerallybeenregardedas"degenerate"languages,oratbestasrudimentary"dialects"ofthepoliticallydominantparentlanguages.Becauseofthis,theword"creole"wasgenerallyusedbylinguistsinoppositionto"language",ratherthanasaqualifierforit.

Anotherfactorthatmayhavecontributedtotherelativeneglectofcreolelanguagesinlinguisticsisthattheydonotfitthe19th-centuryneogrammarian"treemodel"fortheevolutionoflanguages,anditspostulatedregularityofsoundchanges(thesecriticsincludingtheearliestadvocatesofthewavemodel,JohannesSchmidtandHugoSchuchardt,theforerunnersofmodernsociolinguistics).Thiscontroversyofthelate19thcenturyprofoundlyshapedmodernapproachestothecomparativemethodinhistoricallinguisticsandincreolistics.Soc14

SocialAndPoliticalStatus

Becauseofsocial,political,andacademicchangesbroughtonbydecolonizationinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,creolelanguageshaveexperiencedrevivalsinthepastfewdecades.Theyareincreasinglybeingusedinprintandfilm,andinmanycases,theircommunityprestigehasimproveddramatically.Infact,somehavebeenstandardized,andareusedinlocalschoolsanduniversitiesaroundtheworld.Atthesametime,linguistshavebeguntocometotherealizationthatcreolelanguagesareinnowayinferiortootherlanguages.

Theynowusetheterm"creole"or"creolelanguage"foranylanguagesuspectedtohaveundergonecreolization,termsthatnowimplynogeographicrestrictionsnorethnicprejudices.

15Part2ClassificationofCreolePart2ClassificationofCreole16ClassificationsofCreoleLanguagesEnglish-basedCreolesFrench-basedCreolesPortuguese-basedCreolesSpanish-basedCreolesMixedSpanishandPortugueseBasedCreolesAfrikaans-basedCreolesArabic-basedCreolesAssamese-basedCreolesHindi-basedCreolesIndonesian-basedCreolesKongo-basedCreolesMalay-basedCreolesTetun-basedCreolesNgbandi-basedCreolesSwahili-basedCreolesClassificationsofCreoleLang17English-basedCreolesEnglish-basedCreoles18Creole克里奧爾語講解課件19Creole克里奧爾語講解課件20French-basedCreolesFrench-basedCreoles21Creole克里奧爾語講解課件22Creole克里奧爾語講解課件23Portuguese-basedCreolesPortuguese-basedCreoles24Spanish-basedCreolesSpanish-basedCreoles25MixedSpanishandPortugueseBasedCreolesMixedSpanishandPortugueseB26Afrikaans-basedCreolesAfrikaans-basedCreoles27Arabic-basedCreolesArabic-basedCreoles28Assamese-basedCreoles

Assamese-basedCreoles

29Hindi-basedCreolesHindi-basedCreoles30Indonesian-basedCreolesIndonesian-basedCreoles31Kongo-basedCreolesKongo-basedCreoles32Malay-basedCreolesMalay-basedCreoles33Tetun-basedCreolesTetun-basedCreoles34Ngbandi-basedCreolesNgbandi-basedCreoles35Swahili-basedCreolesSwahili-basedCreoles36Part3FeaturesofCreolePart3FeaturesofCreole37FeaturesofCreoleGrammarSoundVocabularyNounVerbCopulaWordorderMeaningExpressionwaysAmountPronunciationStressFeaturesofCreoleGrammarSound38NounGrammarAbsenceofpluralform:Absenceofcasemarking格位標(biāo)志CreoleRPsevencupsevencupsFivebookFivebooksCreoleRPThismanbrotherThisman’sbrotherGirlflowerGirl’sflowerNounGrammarAbsenceofpluralf39VerbGrammarAbsenceofsuffixchangesinthethirdpersonsingularformwithsimplepresenttenseAbsenceofsuffixchangesinpreteritCreoleRPHelikeitHelikesitCreoleRP-edlikedVerbGrammarAbsenceofsuffixc40Absenceofcopula系動詞GrammarCreoleRPSheveryniceSheisveryniceThatthingusealotThatthingisusedalotHegoinghomenowHeisgoinghomenowAbsenceofcopula系動詞GrammarCre41WordorderGrammarCreoleRPWhattimeitis?Whattimeisit?Whyyouarelaughing?Whyareyoulaughing?Whatthisis?Whatisthis?FixedwordorderwithnoinversioninquestionsWordorderGrammarCreoleRPWhat42WordsincreolelanguageusuallyhaveagreaterrangeofmeaningsthanintheoriginallanguagesfromwhichthosewordswereborrowedVocabularySomeconceptsareexpressedbyphrasesratherthanbysinglewordse.g.stap(‘stop’)means

‘belocated,toremain,tocontinue’.

e.g.‘skrubilongarm’means

(‘elbow’)Non-Englishmeaningsofwordsoftenreflectnativesocialstructure‘Papa’increolemeans‘uncle’,sinceaboy’smaternaluncleratherthanhisbiologicalfather生父(papatru)isprimarilyresponsibleforhisupbringing.Wordsincreolelanguageusual43SoundLessamountofsounds,especiallyconsonants,thanthelanguagesonwhichtheywerepresumablybased.CreoleRPlast[Las][lɑ?st]passed[pas][pa:st]DifferentpronunciationswithcertainlettersCreoleRP-mb

(climb)[kla?b][kla?m]-ng(long)[l??g][l??]SoundSoundLessamountofsounds,es44voiced

consonantbecomesvoiceless

consonantCreoleRPpond[p?nt][p?nd]robe[r??p][r??b]DifferentstresspositionCreoleRPCongratul’ateCon’gratulateInvestig’ateIn’vestigateSoundvoiced

consonantbecomesvoice45CreoleLanguageHistorybackgroundComponentsFeaturesCreoleLanguageHistorybackgro46CreoleLanguageCreoleLanguage47Thanks~Thanks~48Creole

Creole49HistoryofCreole01

ClassificationsofCreole02FeaturesofCreole03contentsHistoryofCreole01Classifica50Part01HistoryofCreolePart01HistoryofCreole51Origin1GeographicDistribution2SocialandPoliticalStatus3Origin1GeographicDistribution52OriginTheEnglishtermcreolecomesfromFrenchcréole,whichiscognatewiththeSpanishtermcriolloandPortuguesecrioulo,alldescendingfromtheverbcriar('tobreed'or'toraise'),allcomingfromLatincreare('toproduce,create').Thespecificsenseofthetermwascoinedinthe16thand17thcentury,duringthegreatexpansioninEuropeanmaritimepowerandtradethatledtotheestablishmentofEuropeancoloniesinothercontinents.OriginTheEnglishtermcreol53Origin

ThetermscriolloandcrioulowereoriginallyqualifiersusedthroughouttheSpanishandPortuguesecoloniestodistinguishthemembersofanethnicgroupwhowerebornandraisedlocallyfromthosewhoimmigratedasadults.Theyweremostcommonlyappliedtonationalsofthecolonialpower,e.g.todistinguishespa?olescriollos(peopleborninthecoloniesfromSpanishancestors)fromespa?olespeninsulares(thosebornintheIberianPeninsula,i.e.Spain).OriginThetermscriolloand54

OriginHowever,inBrazilthetermwasalsousedtodistinguishbetweennegroscrioulos(blacksborninBrazilfromAfricanslaveancestors)andnegrosafricanos(borninAfrica).Overtime,thetermanditsderivatives(Creole,Kréol,Kreyol,Kreyòl(fā),Kriol,Krio,etc.)lostthegenericmeaningandbecamethepropernameofmanydistinctethnicgroupsthatdevelopedlocallyfromimmigrantcommunities.Originally,therefore,theterm"creolelanguage"meantthespeechofanyofthosecreolepeoples.

OriginHowever,inBrazilthe55TheoriesonTheOriginofCreoleATheoriesfocusingonEuropeaninputBTheoriesfocusingonnon-EuropeaninputCDUniversalistapproachesGradualistanddevelopmentalhypothesesTheoriesonTheOriginofCreo56TheoriesfocusingonEuropeaninputAMonogenetictheoryofpidginsandcreolesBDomesticoriginhypothesisCEuropeandialectoriginhypothesisDForeignertalkandbabytalkEImperfectL2learningTheoriesfocusingonEuropean57Theoriesfocusingonnon-EuropeaninputTheoriesfocusingonthesubstrate,ornon-European,languagesattributesimilaritiesamongstcreolestothesimilaritiesofAfricansubstratelanguages.Thesefeaturesareoftenassumedtobetransferredfromthesubstratelanguagetothecreoleortobepreservedinvariantfromthesubstratelanguageinthecreolethroughaprocessofrelexification:thesubstratelanguagereplacesthenativelexicalitemswithlexicalmaterialfromthesuperstratelanguagewhileretainingthenativegrammaticalcategories.Theoriesfocusingonnon-Europ58GradualistanddevelopmentalhypothesesOneclassofcreolesmightstartaspidgins,rudimentarysecondlanguagesimprovisedforusebetweenspeakersoftwoormorenon-intelligiblenativelanguages.KeithWhinnom(inHymes(1971))suggeststhatpidginsneedthreelanguagestoform,withone(thesuperstrate)beingclearlydominantovertheothers.Thelexiconofapidginisusuallysmallanddrawnfromthevocabulariesofitsspeakers,invaryingproportions.Morphologicaldetailslikewordinflections,whichusuallytakeyearstolearn,areomitted;thesyntaxiskeptverysimple,usuallybasedonstrictwordorder.

Inthisinitialstage,allaspectsofthespeech—syntax,lexicon,andpronunciation—tendtobequitevariable,especiallywithregardtothespeaker'sbackground.Gradualistanddevelopmentalh59Universalistapproaches

Universalistmodelsstresstheinterventionofspecificgeneralprocessesduringthetransmissionoflanguagefromgenerationtogenerationandfromspeakertospeaker.Theprocessinvokedvaries:ageneraltendencytowardssemantictransparency,firstlanguagelearningdrivenbyuniversalprocess,orgeneralprocessofdiscourseorganization.

Universalistapproaches60

GeographicDistribution

AsaconsequenceofcolonialEuropeantradepatterns,mostoftheknownEuropean-basedcreolelanguagesaroseincoastalareasintheequatorialbeltaroundtheworld,includingtheAmericas,westernAfrica,GoaalongthewestofIndia,andalongSoutheastAsiauptoIndonesia,Singapore,Macau,HongKong,thePhilippines,Malaysia,SeychellesandOceania.

Manyofthosecreolesarenowextinct,butothersstillsurviveintheCaribbean,thenorthandeastcoastsofSouthAmerica(TheGuyanas),westernAfrica,Australia(seeAustralianKriollanguage),andintheIndianOcean.Ge61

SocialandPoliticalStatusBecauseofthegenerallylowstatusoftheCreolepeoplesintheeyesofpriorEuropeancolonialpowers,creolelanguageshavegenerallybeenregardedas"degenerate"languages,oratbestasrudimentary"dialects"ofthepoliticallydominantparentlanguages.Becauseofthis,theword"creole"wasgenerallyusedbylinguistsinoppositionto"language",ratherthanasaqualifierforit.

Anotherfactorthatmayhavecontributedtotherelativeneglectofcreolelanguagesinlinguisticsisthattheydonotfitthe19th-centuryneogrammarian"treemodel"fortheevolutionoflanguages,anditspostulatedregularityofsoundchanges(thesecriticsincludingtheearliestadvocatesofthewavemodel,JohannesSchmidtandHugoSchuchardt,theforerunnersofmodernsociolinguistics).Thiscontroversyofthelate19thcenturyprofoundlyshapedmodernapproachestothecomparativemethodinhistoricallinguisticsandincreolistics.Soc62

SocialAndPoliticalStatus

Becauseofsocial,political,andacademicchangesbroughtonbydecolonizationinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,creolelanguageshaveexperiencedrevivalsinthepastfewdecades.Theyareincreasinglybeingusedinprintandfilm,andinmanycases,theircommunityprestigehasimproveddramatically.Infact,somehavebeenstandardized,andareusedinlocalschoolsanduniversitiesaroundtheworld.Atthesametime,linguistshavebeguntocometotherealizationthatcreolelanguagesareinnowayinferiortootherlanguages.

Theynowusetheterm"creole"or"creolelanguage"foranylanguagesuspectedtohaveundergonecreolization,termsthatnowimplynogeographicrestrictionsnorethnicprejudices.

63Part2ClassificationofCreolePart2ClassificationofCreole64ClassificationsofCreoleLanguagesEnglish-basedCreolesFrench-basedCreolesPortuguese-basedCreolesSpanish-basedCreolesMixedSpanishandPortugueseBasedCreolesAfrikaans-basedCreolesArabic-basedCreolesAssamese-basedCreolesHindi-basedCreolesIndonesian-basedCreolesKongo-basedCreolesMalay-basedCreolesTetun-basedCreolesNgbandi-basedCreolesSwahili-basedCreolesClassificationsofCreoleLang65English-basedCreolesEnglish-basedCreoles66Creole克里奧爾語講解課件67Creole克里奧爾語講解課件68French-basedCreolesFrench-basedCreoles69Creole克里奧爾語講解課件70Creole克里奧爾語講解課件71Portuguese-basedCreolesPortuguese-basedCreoles72Spanish-basedCreolesSpanish-basedCreoles73MixedSpanishandPortugueseBasedCreolesMixedSpanishandPortugueseB74Afrikaans-basedCreolesAfrikaans-basedCreoles75Arabic-basedCreolesArabic-basedCreoles76Assamese-basedCreoles

Assamese-basedCreoles

77Hindi-basedCreolesHindi-basedCreoles78Indonesian-basedCreolesIndonesian-basedCreoles79Kongo-basedCreolesKongo-basedCreoles80Malay-basedCreolesMalay-basedCreoles81Tetun-basedCreolesTetun-basedCreoles82Ngbandi-basedCreolesNgbandi-basedCreoles83Swahili-basedCreolesSwahili-basedCreoles84Part3FeaturesofCreolePart3FeaturesofCreole85FeaturesofCreoleGrammarSoundVocabularyNounVerbCopulaWordorderMeaningExpressionwaysAmountPronunciationStressFeaturesofCreoleGrammarSound86NounGrammarAbsenceofpluralform:Absenceofcasemarking

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