英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)導(dǎo)論《簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)概論》

《簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)概論》江蘇技術(shù)師范學(xué)院龔智敏GeneralStructureoftheBookPart1(chapterI)GeneralintroductionPart2(chapterII–chapterV)IntralinguisticsPart3(chapterVI--chapter)Extralinguistics(Impliedlinguistics)ChapterIGeneralIntroductionI.AboutlinguisticsLinguistics:scientificstudyandstudyoflanguagesingeneralGenerallinguistics:studyoflanguageasawhole

Distinctionsinlinguistics(usuallyagainsttraditionalgrammar)1.descriptivevs.prescriptiveModernlinguistsbelievethatwhateveroccursinthelanguagepeopleuseshouldbedescribedandanalyzedintheirinvestigation.2.Synchronicvs.diachronicSynchronic:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryDiachronic:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeInmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.3.Speechvs.writinggiveprioritytospokenlanguageratherthantowrittenlanguageSpokenlanguageprecedesthewrittenlanguageeverywhereintheworldandmostwritingsystemsarederivedfromthevocalsounds.

現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究以口頭語(yǔ)

為首要對(duì)象

語(yǔ)言是先有口頭語(yǔ)言，后形成文字系統(tǒng)的，目前世界上的幾千種語(yǔ)言中，仍有一大部分無(wú)書面文字?，F(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)的目的在于研究建立在所有人類語(yǔ)言基礎(chǔ)之上的總的原則。需回答這些問(wèn)題：“什么是語(yǔ)言？”，“語(yǔ)言是怎樣工作的？”“人類語(yǔ)言有何普遍性？”“語(yǔ)言在何種范圍內(nèi)變化？”以及“小孩如何習(xí)得語(yǔ)言的？”等等，所有這一切都決定了口語(yǔ)是首要的研究對(duì)象。美國(guó)結(jié)構(gòu)主義的開(kāi)篇作《美洲印第安語(yǔ)手冊(cè)》（HandbookofAmericanIndianLanguages）所描寫的印第安語(yǔ)就是一種既缺少文字，更無(wú)歷史文獻(xiàn)的口頭語(yǔ)言。轉(zhuǎn)換生成語(yǔ)法力圖證明這樣一種假說(shuō)：代表了人類語(yǔ)言本質(zhì)方面的普遍語(yǔ)法（Universalgrammar）是一個(gè)天生就有的，就像一個(gè)人天生就有走路的能力，他們研究的主要對(duì)象就是兒童的口語(yǔ)。語(yǔ)言學(xué)中的語(yǔ)用學(xué)所研究的語(yǔ)言行為理論（Speechact）也是以人的對(duì)話為主，討論三種不同的語(yǔ)言行為，分析會(huì)話的四個(gè)原則?？傊瑢?duì)現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)的研究來(lái)說(shuō)，口語(yǔ)資源豐富，語(yǔ)言心理，思維方式，社會(huì)風(fēng)習(xí)文化變遷等在口語(yǔ)中都有充分的反映?？谡Z(yǔ)可以開(kāi)闊視野，開(kāi)發(fā)新的領(lǐng)域。4.Languevs.parole(SwisslinguistSaussure)Langue:theabstractlinguisticsystemsharebyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityParole:therealizationoflangueinactualuse5.Competencevs.performance(AmericanlinguistChomsky)Competence:theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication6.Withvs.withoutLatin-basedframeworkTomodernlinguists,itisunthinkabletojudgeonelanguagebystandardsofanther,andtheythinkthatthereisnolanguagethatcanprovideanadequateframeworkforalltheothersLangue/petence/performanceTheformertakesasociologicalviewoflanguage,andlanguageisjustamatterofsocialconventionsThelatertakesapsychologicalpointofview,andcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividualUsevs.usageLanguageusage:referstothegrammaticalknowledgeofalanguageLanguageuse:theapplicationoflanguageinactualcasesII.AboutLanguageDefinitions(Sapir)Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsandesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols(Hall)Languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols(Chomsky)FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelementsLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication2.Designfeaturesofhumanlanguagei)ArbitrarinessThereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds,exceptfortheonomatopoeicwordsandthecompoundwordsii)

ProductivityItmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbylanguageusers,andthusproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbeforeiii)

Dualitystructureofsoundswhicharemeaninglessbythemselvesandunitsofmeaningwhichareformedbygroupingofsoundsiv)Displacementuselanguagetorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orevenfuture,orinfar–awayplacesv)CulturaltransmissionpeoplearebornwiththecapacityoflearningalanguagePeopleareonlyequippedwiththecapacityoflearningthelanguagewhichbelongstohisculture,andnotothersChapter2Phonology

Phonologyvs.phoneticsBotharerelatedtothestudyofspeechsoundsPhonetics:ofgeneralnature,andinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguagesPhonology:aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication1.someconcepts◆phone:aphoneticunitorsegmentofthespeechsoundswehearandproducedduringlinguisticcommunication◆phoneme:aphonologicalunitwithdistinctivevalue◆allophone:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments◆phonemiccontrast:twodistinctivephonemes◆complementarydistribution:allophonesofthesamephoneme,buttheydonotdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistributionorthattheyoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments(twowaysofhowphoneticallysimilarsoundsarerelated)◆minimalpairs:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalset.2.Phonologicalrules

Sequentialrules:governthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage(languagespecific)E.g.Ifawordbeginswitha/l/ora/r/,thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,then:thefirstphonememustbe/s/;thesecondphonememust/p/or/t/or/k/;thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/Assimilationrules:assimilateonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar

e.g.impossibleinsteadofinpossibleThesound/i:/isnasalizedinthewordslikebean,green,andscream.deletionrules:asoundisdeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresentedE.g.deletea/g/whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant3.SuprasegmentalfeaturesStress:wordstress&sentencestressTone:pitchvariationsIntonation:sentenceonly,includingpitch,stress,andsoundlengthtiedtogetherChapter3Morphology

Definition:thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Openclasswords&closedclasswordsOpenclasswords:thecontentwordsofalanguage,andwecanregularlyaddnewwordstotheseclasses,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsClosedclasswords:grammaticalorfunctionalwordsofalanguage,andnewwordsarenotusuallyaddedtothem,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns1.

morphemedefinition:themostbasicelementofmeaning;oraminimalunitofmeaning(vs.phoneme)Boundmorphemesvs.

freemorphemesboundmorphemes:themorphemesareneverwordsbutalwayspartsofwords;theycannotoccur“unattached”e.g.affixesfreemorphemes:themorphemesthatcanconstitutewordsbythemselves3.Derivationalvs.inflectionalderivationalmorphemes:themorphemesthat,whenconjoinedtoothermorphemesorwords,anewwordisderived,orformed.inflectionalmorphemes:themorphemesthat,whenattachedtowordsormorphemes,donotchangetheirsyntacticcategory.

morphologicalrules

productivemorphologicalrules:beusedquitefreelytoformnewwordsCompoundsDefinitionAwaytoformnewwordsbystringingwordstogether1.Whenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory.E.g.n.+n.Postboxadj.+adj.Blue-black2.Ifthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryorthecompound.E.g.n.+adj.Head-strongv.+n.pickpocketButcompoundswithaprepositionareinthecategoryofthenonprepositionalpartofthecompound.E.g.Undertakeinaction3.Compoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenoncompoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoatgreenhouse(theprimarystressisonthefirstpartofthecompound)

redcoatgreenhouse(theprimarystressisontheadjectivequalifies)4.Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.Chapter4Syntax

abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.categoriesCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.1.Word-levelcategoriesWordsinallhumanlanguagescanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberofclasses,calledsyntacticcategories.1.1majorlexicalcategoriese.g.noun(N):bookverb(V):runadjective(A):happypreposition(P):about1.2minorlexicalcategoriese.g.Determiner(Det):the,a,thisdegreeword(Deg):quite,very,morequalifier(Qual):often,always,seldomauxiliary(Aux):must,should,canconjunction(Con):and,but,orThecriteriatodetermineaword’scategory:MeaningInflection3.distribution2.PhrasecategoriesDefinition:Syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrases,thecategoryofwhichisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt.Structureofphrasecategories

head:thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed

specifier:thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads;thesyntacticcategoryorthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead

complement:thewordsontherightsideoftheheads;theinformationaboutaword’scomplementisincludedintheheadandtermedsubcategorization3.PhrasestructureruleSpecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseNP(Det)N(PP)VP(Qual)V(NP)AP(Deg)A(PP)PP(Deg)P(NP)XPrule

XP

SpeccifierXComplement

Head2.XˉtheoryXPXˉSpecifierXComplementhead3.XPrulevs.XˉruleInEnglish,theelementsareusuallydeterminedbytheonesprecedingthem.4.Coordinationrulea.thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.b.acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.c.coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.d.thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.4.

Phraseelements

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specifiersdeterminers

(fornouns)andqualifiers(forverbs)semantically,theyhelpmakemoreprecisethemeaningoftheheadsyntactically,theymarkaphraseboundary(2)

complementsXP(specifier)X(complement)Complementizers:wordsthatintroducethesentencecomplementComplementclause:thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizerComplementphrase:thewholepartincludingboththecomplementizerandthecomplementclause(3)

modifierstospecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheadstheexpandedXPrule:(spec)(mod)X(complement)(mod)5. SentencesTheSrule:S

NPVP6.

Transformations

Atransformationcandonomorethanchangeanelement’sposition.6.1AuxiliarymovementstepItheusualXPruleisusedtoformastructureinwhichtheauxiliaryoccupiesitsnormalpositioninInfl,betweenthesubjectandtheVP.stepIIaninversionwhichmovestheauxiliaryfromtheInflpositiontoapositiontotheleftofthesubject.6.2DoinsertionstepIdecidethesurfacestructureofthenormalsentencestepIIinsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflpositionstepIIImovetheinterrogativedointotheCposition6.3WhmovementstepIabstractthedeepstructureofthesentencestepIImovethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence6.4Deepstructureandsurfacestructure

6.5Moveаa(bǔ)ndconstraintsontransformationsa,InversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredistantCposition.b,Noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.Chapter5Semantics

Definition:thestudyofmeaning.1.

Someviewsonthestudyofmeaning

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thenamingtheory(Plato):thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.(2)

theconceptualistview(somephilosophersandlinguists):thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Semantictriangle(3)

Contextualism(Firth):meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,contextelementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.Thesituationalcontext&thelinguisticcontext(4)

Behaviorism(Bloomfield):definethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”2.Lexicalmeaning

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senseandreferencesense:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform;itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.reference:whatalinguisticformreferstointherealphysicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.

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majorsenserelations

a.synonymy:thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Synonyms:DialectalsynonymsSylisticsynonymsSynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningCollocationalsynonymsSemanticallydifferentsynonymsb.polysemy:Whiledifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning;itisoftentheresultofthegrowthanddevelopmentoforchangeinthemeaningofwords.c.homonymy:thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform,ordifferentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophones:twowordsareidenticalinsoundHomographs:twowordsareidenticalinspellingCompletehomonyms:twowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspellingApolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword.Thevariousmeaningofthewordarerelatedtosomedegree,aswehaveseeninthecaseof“table”;whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.e.g.“ball”(page75)d.hyponemy:thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandmorespecificword.SuperordinateHyponymsCohyponymse.antonymy:referstooppositenessofmeaningGradableantonymsComplementaryantonymsRelationalopposites(3)Senserelationbetweensentences

XissynonymouswithY

e.g.X:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.ii:XisinconsistentwithY

e.g.X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.iii:XentailsY

e.g.X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.iv.XpresupposesYe.g.X:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.v.Xisacontradictione.g.X:Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.vi:Xissemanticallyanomalouse.g.X:Thetablehasbadintentions.3.AnalysisofmeaningComponentialanalysisawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning

semanticfeatures(2)Predicationanalysisawaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(byLeech)

selectionalrestrictions arguments&predicate

Chapter6PragmaticsI.somebasicnotionsDefinitionPragmaticsisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Pragmaticsstudiessuchtopicsasrelatedtolanguagecommunication,includingdeixis,speechacts,indirectlanguage,conversation,politeness,cross-culturalcommunication,andpresupposition2.Pragmaticsvs.semanticsPragmaticsstudiesthelanguageasaself-contained,intrinsicsystemSemanticsgivesanadequatedescriptionofmeaninginlightofthecontextoflanguageWhatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Context:isconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.3.Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning

Sentencemeaning:agrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.AbstractanddecontextualizedUtterancemeaning:whatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,anditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyutteredorused.Concreteandcontext-dependentII.Speechacttheory1.Austin’smodelofspeechactsaphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunicationLocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,thespeaker’sintention.Illocutionaryactisthatbymakingsuchanutterancehehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,e.g.askingsomeonetoclosethedoor.Perlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ofthethreespeechacts,linguistsaremostinterestedintheillocutionaryactbecausethiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.2.Searle’sclassificationofspeechactsA,representatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue;theyaretocommitthespeakertosomething’sbeingthecase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid,e.g.stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing

B,directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething;theyareattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,orderingC,commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction;theyarethoseillocutionaryactswhosepointistocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction,mising,undertaking,vowingD,expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate;theyaretoexpressthepsychologicalstatespecifiedintheutterance,e.g.apologizing,thanking,congratulatingE,declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething;theyhavethecharacteristicsthatthesuccessfulperformanceofanactofthistypebringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.Grice’sprincipleofconversation

Cooperativeprinciple(CP):fourmaximsThemaximofquantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.ThemaximofqualityDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.ThemaximofrelationBerelevant.ThemaximofmannerAvoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).Beorderly.conversationalimplicature

itoccurswhenboththespeakerandthehearerareviolatingorfloutingthefourmaximsblatantly,andwhenbothareawareoftheviolation.Chapter7Languagechange

1.

1.SoundchangeSoundchangestendtobesystematic;andthemostdramaticchangeliesinvowels.2.

MorphologicalandsyntacticchangeChangeinagreementruleChangeinnegationruleProcessofsimplificationLossofinflectionsVocabularychange

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additionofnewwordscoinage:anewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose,e.g.Ford

clippedwords:abbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases,e.g.gym-gymnasiumblending:formedbycombiningpartsofotherwords,e.g.smog–smoke+fogacronyms:derivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords,e.g.WTO–WorldTradeOrganizationback-formation:newwordscanbecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsbysubtractinganaffixthoughttobeapartoftheoldword,e.g.editor–eidtfunctionalshift:wordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes,e.g.knee–tokneeborrowing:wordsareoftenborrowedfromonelanguagetoanother,e.g.tea,zero(2)lossofwordsThelossofwordstakesplacegraduallyoverthecourseofseveralgenerations.(3)

changesinthemeaningofwordswideningofmeaning:thewordmeanseverythingitusedtomean,andthenmore,e.g.holidaynarrowingofmeaning:semanticchangeshasnarrowedthemeaningofawordtowhatitisinModernEnglish,e.g.deer

meaningshift:alexicalitemmayundergoashiftinmeaning,e.g.inn4.

Somerecenttrends(1)

movingtowardsgreaterinformalitye.g.ain’t,It’sme.(2)

theinfluenceofAmericanEnglishe.g.toupdate–tobringuptodate(3)

theinfluenceofscienceandtechnologye.g.spacetravelcomputerandinternetlanguageecology

5.causesoflanguagechange(1)therapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology(2)socialandpoliticalchangesandpoliticalneeds(3)womenliberationmovement(4)grammarsimplificationresultedfrom“economyofmemory”(5)theoryofleasteffortChapter8Languageandsociety

Sociolinguistics:itisthesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.1.therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsocietyWhilelanguageisprincipallyusedtocommunicatemeaning,itisalsousedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.Usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Speechcommunity:thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialstudy.Speechvariety:anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.abird’s–eyeview&aworm’s–eyeview2.

Varietiesoflanguage(1)Dialectalvarietiesa,regionaldialectAregionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.b,sociolectSocialdialecthastodowithseparationbroughtaboutbydifferentsocialconditions.Sociolect,orsocial-classdialect,referstothelinguisticvarietycharacteristicofparticularsocialclass.AccentReceivedPronunciationc,languageandgenderwomenhavealowerfrequencyof–nfor–ngthanmendofemalestendtohaveawiderrangeintheirintonationdifferenceinlexicalitemsd,languageandageusuallyatthelexicallevele,idiolectIdiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations.f,ethnicdialectItismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation,e.g.BlackEnglish2.

3.RegisterLinguisticrepertoire:thetotalityoflinguisticvarietiespossessedbyanindividualconstituteshislinguisticrepertoire.Register:thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Halliday:Languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.(1)threesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregisterFieldofdiscoursereferstowhatisgoingon;itisconcernedwiththepurposeandsubject-matterofcommunication.Whyandwhatcommunicationtakesplace.Tenorofdiscoursereferstotheroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion.Towhomthespeakeriscommunicating.Modeofdiscoursereferstothemeansofcommunication.Howcommunicationiscarriedout.(2)degreeofformalityMartinJoos:

Intimatecasualconsultativeformalfrozen4.

standarddialectThestandardvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisaparticularvarietyofalanguageinthatitisnotrelatedtoanyparticulargroupoflanguageusers,butitisthevarietywhichanymemberofaspeechcommunitycanpossiblyuseregardlessofhissocialandgeographicalbackgrounds,hisgenderandage.Thestandarddialectisbasedonaselectedvarietyofthelanguage,usuallyitisthelocalspeechofanareawhichisconsideredthenation’spoliticalandcommercialcenter.Thestandarddialectisnotadialectachildacquiresnaturallylikehisregionaldialect.5.

PidginandCreoleApidgin

isaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.bilingualismanddiglossiaInsomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.Ina

dialossicsituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.HighvarietyandlowvarietyChapter9LanguageandCulture

1.

1.

CultureInabroadsense,itmeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodcultureetc.2.

TherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureAlanguagenotonlyexpressesfacts,ideas,oreventswhichrepresentsimilarworldknowledgebyitspeople,butalsoreflectsthepeople’sattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooksetc.Languageexpressesculturalreality,andlanguagesymbolizesculturalreality.Aspeople’slanguageusesexpresstheculture,tobemorespecific,theircommunityculturerepresentedbyitssocialconventions,normsandsocialappropriateness,theculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.Cultureaffectsitspeople’simaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.3.

Sapir-WhorfHypothesisLinguisticrelativityThestr