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關于感染性疾病的實驗診斷第1頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四前言實驗診斷學(laboratorydiagnosis)是診斷學的一部分,它是基礎醫(yī)學向臨床醫(yī)學過渡的橋梁課程之一。實驗診斷學的任務是將臨床檢驗所提供的檢驗信息,通過醫(yī)師的分析和思維,科學地應用于臨床診斷、鑒別診斷、觀察病情、判斷預后、預防疾病的一門學科,特別強調(diào)在循證實驗醫(yī)學的原則下推行“實驗的優(yōu)化組合應用”和“在實驗監(jiān)測下作個體化治療的應用”,實驗診斷學也可稱為臨床檢驗診斷學。因此,它是醫(yī)學生的必修課,必須加以重視。第2頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

感染性疾病的實驗診斷第3頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四主要學習內(nèi)容及要求掌握感染性疾病的常用實驗室檢測項目及其臨床意義和評價不同病原體感染性疾病實驗室檢測與不同系統(tǒng)病原體感染性疾病實驗室檢測特點熟悉引起血流感染、中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)感染、呼吸系統(tǒng)感染、消化系統(tǒng)感染、泌尿系統(tǒng)感染、皮膚及軟組織感染和先天及新生兒感染常見病原體與常見疾病及病原學檢查、常見醫(yī)院感染病原體及特點、醫(yī)院感染的微生物學檢測及醫(yī)院感染暴發(fā)流行的識別和處理了解當今感染病特點、感染類型第4頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四SpecimenCollection

Successfullaboratorydiagnosisofamicrobialinfectiondependsonmanyfactorsbeginningwithawell-collectedsample.Properspecimenselection,collection,andtransportareallessentialtoensurethataspecimenisrepresentativeofthediseaseprocessandminimallycontaminatedwithmicroorganismspresentinadjacenttissues.第5頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四SiteandTimingCollectthesamplefromthecorrectanatomicsite.eg.asuperficialsampleofalesionisnotusefulinidentifyingthecauseofadeepwoundinfection.Thetimingofsamplecollectionisalsoimportant.

eg,whensubmittingaspecimenforbacterialculture,samplesshouldbecollectedbeforetheadministrationofantibiotics

第6頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四CollectionTechniquesSufficientvolumeSteriletechniqueandequipment.Aftercollection,thespecimenmustbeplacedinanappropriatelylabeledleak-proofcontainer.第7頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四TransportofSpecimensRapid,optimallyinlessthan2hours.Fordelaysintransport,mostspecimensshouldberefrigerated.Exceptions:blood,cerebrospinalfluid(CSF),andspecimenstobeexaminedforanaerobes,fastidiousorganismssuchasNeisseriagonorrboeaeandBordetellapertussis,andTrichomonasvaginalis,allofwhichshouldbemaintainedatroomtemperature.第8頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四難點/重點解讀(一)細菌感染性疾病常用實驗室檢測項目的組合(二)病毒感染性疾病常用實驗室檢測項目的組合(三)真菌感染性疾病常用實驗室檢測項目的組合(四)寄生蟲感染性疾病常用實驗室檢測項目的組合第9頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四細菌感染性疾病

常用實驗室檢測項目的組合

1.感染病的實驗診斷方法雖按基本原則進行,但細感染性疾病具下述特點:

在檢查項目中,尤其以細菌分離培養(yǎng)鑒定為主。在無菌標本中檢查到細菌,則此細菌為感染的病原;存在正常菌群的標本中檢查到細菌,應區(qū)分是正常寄居的菌群或是致病的細菌,常需要作細菌定量計數(shù),根據(jù)細菌數(shù)判斷是否為感染的病原菌。第10頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四細菌感染性疾病

常用實驗室檢測項目的組合2.

根據(jù)目的不同,檢測項目的選擇是:

(1)診斷疾病的病原學,一般情況下只需鑒定到細菌的種,必要時再進一步鑒定;

(2)提供治療方案,可以進行臨床標本的直接藥物敏感試驗,還可根據(jù)分離出病原菌的種類直接提供選擇抗生素的范圍和種類;

(3)研究流行病學,必須對病原菌做進一步鑒定,往往鑒定到型(血清型或基因型)的水平;

(4)要了解這類細菌的致病性,必須進行細致鑒定,包括毒素、侵襲性酶類的檢測。

第11頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四(一)細菌感染性疾病

常用實驗室檢測項目的組合

3.根據(jù)標本來源,通常構成不同組合的檢驗方法:

(1)無菌性標本(血液、腦脊液、體腔滲出液),采用顯微鏡檢查和直接藥敏試驗可作為病原學診斷和提供臨床治療用藥指導;(2)膿血便,采用革蘭染色無診斷意義,需用標記抗體染色鏡檢獲初步報告,再需經(jīng)選擇培養(yǎng)基分離培養(yǎng),挑取可疑菌落作玻片血清凝集,陽性者可初步鑒定,再用配套生化反應可作出最后報告;(3)尿液標本,顯微鏡檢查可初步估計細菌菌量,作出初步診斷,再經(jīng)分離培養(yǎng)鑒定后和菌落定量計數(shù)可作出病原學診斷;④痰標本,采用顯微鏡檢查,判定是否為合格標本,若為合格標本作分區(qū)劃線接種,檢出致病性菌落,再進行鑒定和藥敏。第12頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四細菌感染性疾病

常用實驗室檢測項目的組合4.結(jié)果報告可由實驗室人員可分別出具:先后和程度不同報告各檢測項目(顯微鏡檢查、分離培養(yǎng)、血清學試驗、生化鑒定和PCR等核酸檢測)結(jié)果,為臨床提供信息。5.為保證細菌感染正確診斷,必須遵循下述細菌感染診斷原則:①要求醫(yī)師和檢驗師的密切配合,不應停留在化驗單往來;②重視檢驗標本的采集和送檢;③重視檢驗過程的階段性和連續(xù)性;④檢驗程序需有針對性和綜合性。第13頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseasePrinciplesofDiagnosticMedicalMicrobiology

IntroductionDiagnosticmedicalmicrobiologyisconcernedwiththeetiologicdiagnosisofinfection.Laboratoryproceduresusedinthediagnosisofinfectiousdiseaseinhumansincludethefollowing:第14頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseasePrinciplesofDiagnosticMedicalMicrobiology

(1)Morphologicidentificationoftheagentinstainsofspecimensorsectionsoftissues(lightandelectronmicroscopy).(2)Cultureisolationandidentificationoftheagent.(3)Detectionofantigenfromtheagentbyimmunologicassay(latexagglutination,EIA,etc)orbyfluorescein-labeled(orperoxidase-labeled)antibodystains.第15頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseasePrinciplesofDiagnosticMedicalMicrobiology

(4)DNA-DNAorDNA-RNAhybridizationtodetectpathogen-specificgenesinpatients'specimens.(5)Detectionandamplificationoforganismnucleicacidinpatients'specimens.(6)Demonstrationofmeaningfulantibodyorcell-mediatedimmuneresponsestoaninfectiousagent.第16頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseasePrinciplesofDiagnosticMedicalMicrobiology

Physicianswhodealwithinfectiousprocessesmustknowwhenandhowtotakespecimens,whatlaboratoryexaminationstorequest,andhowto

interprettheresults.Clinicalinformationismuchmoreimportantfordiagnosticmicrobiologythanitisforclinicalchemistryorhematology.Theclinicianmustmakeatentativediagnosisratherthanwaituntillaboratoryresultsareavailable.第17頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseasePrinciplesofDiagnosticMedicalMicrobiology

CommunicationbetweenPhysician&Laboratory

Asthelaboratorystaffbeginstoobtainresults,theyinformthephysician,whocanthenreevaluatethediagnosisandclinicalcourseofthepatientandperhapsmakechangesinthetherapeuticprogram.This"feedback"informationfromthelaboratoryconsistsofpreliminaryreportsoftheresultsofindividualstepsintheisolationandidentificationofthecausativeagent.第18頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDisease

DiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimensLaboratoryexaminationusuallyincludesmicroscopicstudyoffreshunstainedandstainedmaterialsandpreparationofcultureswithconditionssuitableforgrowthofawidevarietyofmicroorganisms,includingthetypeoforganismmostlikelytobecausativebasedonclinicalevidence.第19頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimensIfamicroorganismisisolated,completeidentificationmaythenbepursued.Isolatedmicroorganismsmaybetestedforsusceptibilitytoantimicrobialdrugs.Whensignificantpathogensareisolatedbeforetreatment,follow-uplaboratoryexaminationsduringandaftertreatmentmaybeappropriate.

第20頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimensSpecimensAproperlycollectedspecimenisthesinglemostimportantstepinthediagnosisofaninfection,becausetheresultsofdiagnostictestsforinfectiousdiseasesdependupontheselection,timing,andmethodofcollectionofspecimens.

第21頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimensSpecimensRecoveryofbacteriaismostsignificantiftheagentisisolatedfromasitenormallydevoidofmicroorganisms(anormallysterilearea).Anytypeofmicroorganismculturedfromblood,cerebrospinalfluid,jointfluid,orthepleuralcavityisasignificantdiagnosticfinding.Conversely,manypartsofthebodyhaveanormalmicrobialflora(respiratory,gastrointestinal,orgenitourinarytracts;fromwounds;orfromtheskin)mustbeconsideredinthecontextofthenormalfloraofeachparticularsite.第22頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimensSpecimensAfewgeneralrulesapplytoallspecimens:(1)Thequantityofmaterialmustbeadequate.(2)Thesampleshouldberepresentativeoftheinfectiousprocess(eg,sputum,notsaliva;pusfromtheunderlyinglesion,notfromitssinustract;aswabfromthedepthofthewound,notfromitssurface).(3)Contaminationofthespecimenmustbeavoidedbyusingonlysterileequipmentandasepticprecautions.第23頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsSpecimens(4)Thespecimenmustbetakentothelaboratoryandexaminedpromptly.Specialtransportmediamaybehelpful.(5)Meaningfulspecimenstodiagnosebacterialandfungalinfectionsmustbesecuredbeforeantimicrobialdrugsareadministered.Ifantimicrobialdrugsaregivenbeforespecimensaretakenformicrobiologicstudy,drugtherapymayhavetobestoppedandrepeatspecimensobtainedseveraldayslater.第24頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsMicroscopy&StainsGramstainingisaveryusefulprocedureindiagnosticmicrobiology.Mostspecimenssubmittedwhenbacterialinfectionissuspectedshouldbesmearedonglassslides,Gram-stained,andexaminedmicroscopically.第25頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsMicroscopy&StainsTheappearanceofbacteriaonGram-stainedsmearsdoesnotpermitidentificationofspecies.Reportsofgram-positivecocciinchainsaresuggestiveof,butnotdefinitivefor,streptococcalspecies;gram-positivecocciinclusterssuggestastaphylococcalspecies.第26頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsMicroscopy&StainsSpecimenssubmittedforexaminationformycobacteriashouldbestainedforacid-fastorganisms,usingeitherZiehl-NeelsenstainorKinyounstain.Immunofluorescentantibody(IF)stainingisusefulintheidentificationofmanymicroorganisms第27頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsCultureSystemsFordiagnosticbacteriology,itisnecessarytouseseveraltypesofmediaforroutineculture,particularlywhenthepossibleorganismsincludeaerobic,facultativelyanaerobic,andobligatelyanaerobicbacteria.第28頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsCultureSystems

culturemediausedtodiagnose:bloodagar,Chocolateagar,selectivemediumforentericgram-negativerods(eitherMacConkeyagaroreosin-methyleneblue[EMB]agar,brucellaagarwithheminandvitaminK,Manyotherspecializedmediaareusedindiagnosticbacteriology;choicesdependontheclinicaldiagnosisandtheorganismunderconsideration.第29頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsAntigenDetectionImmunologicsystemsdesignedtodetectantigensofmicroorganismscanbeusedinthediagnosisofspecificinfections.IFtests(directandindirectfluorescentantibodytests)areoneformofantigendetectionandarediscussedinseparatesectionsinthischapteronthediagnosisofbacterial,chlamydial,andviralinfectionsandinthechaptersonthespecificmicroorganisms.第30頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsAntigenDetectionEnzymeimmunoassays(EIA),includingenzyme-linkedimmunosorbentassays(ELISA),andagglutinationtestsareusedtodetectantigensofinfectiousagentspresentinclinicalspecimens.Theprinciplesofthesetestsarereviewedbrieflyhere.第31頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseDiagnosisofBacterialInfectionsAntigenDetectionLatexagglutinationtestsareprimarilydirectedatthedetectionofcarbohydrateantigensofencapsulatedmicroorganisms.AnotherformofEIA,todetectantibody,isimmunoblotting("Westernblot"),wherebydefinedantigensareplacedonstripsofnitrocellulosepaper.第32頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseBacteriaUsing16SrRNAThe16SrRNAofeachspeciesofbacteriahasstable(conserved)portionsofthesequence.Manycopiesarepresentineachorganism.Labeledprobesspecificforthe16SrRNAofaspeciesareadded,andtheamountoflabelonthedouble-strandedhybridismeasured.第33頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseBacteriaUsing16SrRNAThistechniqueiswidelyusedfortherapididentificationofmanyorganisms.ExamplesincludethemostcommonandimportantMycobacteriumspecies,Coccidioidesimmitis,Histoplasmacapsulatum,andothers.第34頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseMolecularDiagnosticsTheprinciplebehindearlymolecularassaysisthehybridizationofacharacterizednucleicacidprobetoaspecificnucleicacidsequenceinatestspecimenfollowedbydetectionofthepairedhybrid.第35頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDiseaseMolecularDiagnosticsTargetAmplificationSystemstranscription-mediatedamplification(TMA)thenucleicacidsequence-basedamplification(NASBA)Stranddisplacementassays(SDA)ProbeAmplificationSystems-Theligasechainreaction(LCR)SignalAmplificationTechniques-branchedDNA(bDNA)第36頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四Identifying

BacteriathatCauseDisease第37頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四病毒感染性疾病

常用實驗室檢測項目的組合

1.感染病的實驗診斷方法雖按基本原則進行,但病毒感染性疾病具下述特點:作分離的標本和細菌標本不一樣,必須是經(jīng)濾過除菌的液體標本。大多數(shù)病毒對熱敏感,因此標本需迅速冷藏和運送。病毒分離培養(yǎng)后,

根據(jù)細胞病變特征確定何種病毒,再此基礎上,對已分離的病毒和已知參考血清作中和試驗、補體結(jié)合試驗。第38頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四病毒感染性疾病

常用實驗室檢測項目的組合2.病毒血清學檢查是病毒感染診斷的常規(guī)實驗室方法,用免疫標記技術檢測標本組織細胞內(nèi)的病毒抗原和胞外游離病毒抗原是一種快速的早期診斷。顯微鏡檢查也是病毒實驗診斷不可忽視的手段,光學顯微鏡檢查感染組織或脫落細胞中特征性病毒包涵體、電鏡檢查病毒顆粒是早期診斷的方法之一。第39頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四病毒感染性疾病

常用實驗室檢測項目的組合3.核酸檢測病毒分離鑒定和血清學診斷一般需較長時間才能判斷結(jié)果,近年來發(fā)展的利用核酸雜交技術和PCR技術檢測標本中病毒核酸,是一種快速的早期診斷。對那些可能新出現(xiàn)的病毒,只有用分離方法取得最好診斷結(jié)果。第40頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四病毒感染性疾病

常用實驗室檢測項目的組合

4.以循證檢驗為依據(jù)選擇實驗項目

病毒感染實驗診斷方法諸多,且各具不同的敏感度和特異度。有關的醫(yī)學專業(yè)組織可充分利用已有的循證診斷試驗的文獻,制定科學的、嚴格的、用于臨床疾病診斷的指南。指南根據(jù)現(xiàn)有的最佳證據(jù)或?qū)<业囊恢乱庖?,提供診斷建議,將實驗室診斷試驗項目分別按證據(jù)的等級水平進行標記。臨床實驗室人員、特別是臨床醫(yī)師可依據(jù)指南對同一組織器官、不同病毒感染或不同組織器官、同一病毒感染選擇最佳。第41頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四approachestothediagnosisofviralinfectionTherearetwomajorapproachestothediagnosisofviralinfection:virologicandserologic.

Thevirologicapproachincludes(1)isolationofinfectiousvirusincellcultureorinlaboratoryanimals,(2)detectionofviralantigenbyimmunologicmethodssuchasimmunofluorescenceassay(IFA)orenzymeimmunoassay(EIA),(3)identificationofviralparticlesbyelectronmicroscopy(EM),and(4)detectionofviralnucleicacid.第42頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四approachestothediagnosisofviralinfectionTheserologicapproachincludes(1)demonstrationofafourfoldorgreaterriseinantiviralantibodyusingacuteandconvalescentseraandavarietyofmethodsthatmeasurepredominantlyimmunoglobulin(Ig)antibodyand(2)demonstrationofvirus-specificIgMantibodyinasinglelateacuteorrecoveryphaseserum.第43頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四approachestothediagnosisofviralinfectionAsistrueforanydiagnostictest,thetiming,quality,andhandlingofthespecimenarecriticalforanaccuratediagnosis.Forthevirologicapproachtodiagnosis,itisimportanttoobtainspecimensduringtheacuteinfectionfromthesiteofdisease.第44頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四approachestothediagnosisofviralinfectionOptimalSpecimens

Theoptimalspecimensvarydependingonthesiteofdisease:1、Lesions2、PediatricRespiratoryIllness3、AdultRespiratoryIllness4、AcuteInfection第45頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-

ViralIsolation

Isolationofinfectiousvirusintissuecellculturesremainsoneofthemostcommonlyusedmethodstodetectviruses.ThemajorvirusesdetectedbyisolationincellcultureincludeHSV,CMV,RSV,influenzaAandB,theparainfluenzaviruses,theadenoviruses,theenteroviruses(CoxsackieAandB,echo,polio),andVZV..第46頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-

ViralIsolation

SeveralDifferentTypesofCells

Becausenotallculturableviruseswillgrowinasinglecellline,severaldifferenttypesofcellsarerequired:(1)Duringthewinterseason,thecellsthatmaybeusedtoisolaterespiratoryvirusesincludeprimaryrhesusmonkeykidney.Madin-Darbycaninekidney,Hep-2(ahumanepithelialcarcinomacellline,)buffalogreenmonkeykidneycontinuouscellline,andahumanfibroblastcell.第47頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-

ViralIsolation

SeveralDifferentTypesofCells

(2)Forthesummer/fallenteroviousseason,thesearedifferentfromthecellsused:primaryrhesusmonkeykidney,Hep-2,buffalogreenmonkeykidney,RD(ahumanrhabdomyosarcomacellline),andahumanfibroblastcell.第48頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四approachestothediagnosisofviralinfection-ViralIsolation(3)

CytopathicEffect(CPE)1.Manyviruseswilldemonstrateacytopathiceffect(CPE)

withinafewdays,whereassomemaytakeaslongasaweekortwo.SomeviruseswilldonotcausetypicalCPEandareidentifiedbytheadsorptionofredbloodcellstothesurfaceofvirus-infectedcellsintheculture(e.ghemadsorptionfortheinfluenzaandparainfluenzaviruses).Forsomeviruses,suchasseveraloftheCoxsackieAvirusesandColoradotickfevervirusmouseinoculationisrequired.第49頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四CytopathicEffect(CPE)第50頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

hemadsorptionfortheinfluenzaandparainfluenzaviruses

第51頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四mouseinoculation

第52頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-ViralIsolation

CytopathicEffect(CPE)

2.Withcellculturesystems,presumptiveidentificationofparticularvirusorvirusgroup(e.g.HSVorRSVoranenterovirus)canbeperformedwithinafeworseveraldaysbasedontheCPE:characteristics,timeofonset,andcelltypeinwhichitoccurs.Thispresumptiveidentificationcanbegreatlyfacilitatedifthetestrequisitionslipcontainstheimportantinformationrequested:sourceofthespecimen(e.g.swabofagenitalulceroraconjunctivalswabratherthananunidentifiedswabsource)andclinicaldiagnosis(e.g.genitalherpes,influenza,asepticmeningitis).第53頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-ViralIsolation

ConfirmationofaSpecificVirus

Confirmationofaspecificvirusserotypeorofavirus(e.g.HSV-2,influenzaAH3N2,echovirus11)requiresuseofimmunologicmethodswithantibodyofknownspecificity.Inrecentyears,fluorescenceorperoxidase-conjugatedmonoclonalantibodies(MABs)havebecomeavailablecommerciallytodetectviralantigenincellcultures,e.g.HSV,CMV,VZV,RSV,influenzaAandB,theparainfluenzaviruses,andtheadenoviruses.第54頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-ViralIsolation

ConfirmationofaSpecificVirusToidentifythespecificserotypeofinfluenzaAorB,inhibitionofhemaglutinationbyspecificserotypeantiseraisused.ForconfirmationofaspecificCoxsaclieorechovirusserotype,neutralizationofCPEwithpoolsofantiseraandthenindividualantiseraisstillrequired.第55頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四AdvantagesThereareseveraladvantagestousingisolationofinfectiousvirusasthemethodofdiagnosis.(1)First,abroadrangeofvirusescanbedetected,Forexample,fromarespiratorysectionspecimen,anumberofdifferentrespiratoryvirusescanbeisolated,whereasanantigendetectionmayidentifyonlyonevirus(eg.RSV).第56頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四approachestothediagnosisofviralinfection-

ViralIsolation

Advantages(2)Second,isolationofinfectiousvirusmakestheagentavailableforfurthercharacterization,suchasantivialsusceptibilitytestingandserotyping/subtypingforepidemiologicpurposes.(3)Third,viralisolationisasensitiveandspecificstandardwithwhichmorerapidmethodsarecompared.第57頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-ViralIsolation

DisadvantagesTherearealsoseveraldisadvantagestoviralisolation.Itrequirestheavailabilityofacellculturelaboratory,withtheneedforspecializedequipmentandsuppliesandtrainedpersonnel.Second,isolationisslowerthanantigendetection,withresultsindaysratherthanhours.Finally,specimencollectionandtransportconditionsaremorecriticalforisolationthanantigentests.第58頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothe

diagnosisofviralinfection–

ViralAntigenDetection

Viralantigendetection

testsmaybeperformedoncellculturesforearlydetection/confirmationofviralantigenoronspecimensdirectlyfrompatients:nasalornasopharyngealsecretions,BALfluids,scrapingsofvesiclesorconjunctivae,swabsofthecervixorurethra,stoolsamples,ortissuebiopsies.第59頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

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diagnosisofviralinfection–

ViralAntigenDetection

Becauseviralantigenispresentincells,itisimportantthatspecimensfrompatientscontainasufficientnumberofcells.FormoreslowlygrowingvirussuchasCMV,theuseofMABagainstnonstructuralproteinsproducedearlyinthereplicationcycle(i,eimmediateearlyantigen)allowsdetectionofvirusevenbeforeCPEcanbeobserves.第60頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

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ViralAntigenDetection

Themajorviralantigensthatcanbedetectedindirectpatientspecimensinclude(1)rotavirusandentericadenovirusinstoolspecimens;(2)RSV,influenzaAandB,theparainfluenzaviruses,andtheadenovirusesinrespiratoryspecimens;(3)hepatitisBvirus(HBV)surfaceantigen(HBsAg)andHIVp24antigeninserum;第61頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

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ViralAntigenDetection

(4)HSVandVZVinvesicle/ulcerswabspecimens;and(5)CMVinBALspecimens.ThemajorvirusesdetectedbytheSVC/VAS(ShellViralCentrifugation/ViralAntigenStaining)methodincludeCMV,HSV,RSV,theinfluenzaviruses,andadenoviruses.第62頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-ViralAntigenDetection

MethodstoDetectViralAntigen

Methodstodetectviralantigenmaybeeitherdirectorindirect.(1)Withdirectmethods,fluorescien,anenzyme,oraradiolabel(theindicatorsystem)isconjugatedtotheantibodyusedtodetectthevirus(primaryantibody第63頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection–

ViralAntigenDetection

MethodstoDetectViralAntigen

(2)Withindirectmethods,theindicatorsystemisconjugatedtoasecondaryantibody(e.g.,rabbitanti-mouse),whichinturnisdirectedagainsttheprimaryantibody(e.g.,mouseMAB).TheindirectmethodcanbeconstructedtoreactwithhumanIgGorIgMmoleculesforuseinantibodyassays.ThemajorindicatorsystemincluedIFA,EIA,andradioimmunoassay(RIA)第64頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-ViralAntigenDetection

ShellViralCentrifugation/ViralAntigenStaining(SVC/VAS)Method(SVC/VAS)techniqueofcentrifugationofthepatientspecimenontothecellmonolayeronacoverslipinthebottomofashellvialfollowedbystainingforviralantigenwithMABafter1of2daysofincubationhassignificantlyreducedthetimerequiredtodetectandconfirmanumberofviruses.Thecentrifugationstepshortensthetimerequiredforreplicationofthevirusandproductionofviralantigenincellcultures.第65頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothediagnosis

ofviralinfection-ViralAntigenDetection

ShellViralCentrifugation/ViralAntigenStaining(SVC/VAS)MethodForexample,withCMV,theSVC/VASmethoddetects50%ofthetotalpositivesin1dayand90%in2days,whereasitrequires10daystodetect50%withconventionalCPE.Manydiagnosticvirologylaboratories,therefore,usetheSVC/VAStechnique,particularlyfordetectionofCMV.第66頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothediagnosisofviralinfection-

ViralAntigenDetection

AdvantagesThereareseveraladvantagestoviralantigendetection.(1)Specimencollectionandtransportconditionsarelesscriticalthanforviralisolation.(2)Antigendetectiontestresultsareavailablesoonerthanviralisolation,usuallywithinhours.(3)Theantigentestscandetectvirusesthatwillnotgrowincommerciallyavailablecellculturesystems(e.g.,rotavirus,entericadenovirus,HBV,HIV).第67頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

approachestothediagnosisofviralinfection-

ViralAntigenDetection

Advantages(4)Theantigendetectiontestsdonotrequirecellculturelaboratoryequipmentandtrainedpersonnelforperformance.(5)Theremaybespecimensinwhichviralinfectivityhasbeenlost(negativeviralisolationresults)butantigenicityhasbeenpreserved(trueantigen-positivetest).第68頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

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ofviralinfection–

ViralAntigenDetection

DisadvantagesTherearealsoseveraldisadvantagestoviralantigendetection.(1)Theremustbeagoodantiserumandtestkitcommerciallyavailableforthevirussoughtinthespecimen.ExamplesofmedicallyimportantvirusesforwhichantigendetectionsystemsarenotyetavailableareEpstein-Barrvirus(EBV),hepatitisAandCviruses,theenteroviruses,rubella,mumps,thearboviruses,andparvovirusB19.第69頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

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ViralAntigenDetection

Disadvantages(2)Aseparateantigendetectiontestmustbeperformedforeachvirusbeingsought.Forexample,withrespiratorysecretions,onetestmustbeperformedforRSV,anotherforinfluenza,stillanotherforinfluenzaB,andsoon.(3)Dependingontheparticularvirusandantigendetectionsystemavailable,theantigentestmaybelesssensitiveandisalwayslessspecificthanviralisolation.第70頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

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ElectronMicroscopy

EMremainanimportantadjuncttootherviraldiagnosticmethods,especiallyforidentificationofagentsofviralgastroenteritis.OtherusesforEMincludedetectionofpolyomavirusesinurineandherpesvirusparticlesinvesiclefluid(HSV,VZV)orinbraintissue(HSV,CMV,EBV),amongothers.第71頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

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ElectronMicroscopy

Antigendetectiontestsareavailablefortwoofthethreemostcommoncauseofviraldiarrhea:rotavirusandentericadenovirus.Asidefromviralresearchlaboratoryserologictests,alternativediagnosticmethodsarenotyetcommercialavailableforotherviralpathogenssuchasNorwalkvirus,astrovirus,calicivirusandsmallroundstructuredviruses.第72頁,共132頁,2023年,2月20日,星期四

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ElectronMicroscopy

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