TGgrammar五階段完整版

4.8FivestagesofdevelopmentofTGgrammarFivestagesofdevelopment1)TheClassicalTheory,whichaimstomakelinguisticsascience.SyntacticStructures,1975

2)TheStandardTheory,whichdealswithhowsemanticsshouldbestudiedinalinguistictheoryAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax,19653)TheExtendedStandardTheory,whichfocusesdiscussiononlanguageuniversalsanduniversalgrammarStudiesonSemanticinGenerativeGrammar,1972

4)TheRevisedExtendedStandardTheory(orGB),whichfocusesonGovernmentandBindingLecturesonGovernmentandBinding,1981

5)TheMinimalistProgram,whichisafurtherrevisionoftheprevioustheory.TheMinimalProgram,1995

MinimalistInquiries:TheFramework,19984.8.1TheclassicalTheory1)Itaimstomakelinguisticsascience:2)Itsfeatures:①Emphasizingongenerativeabilityoflanguage②Introducingtransformationalrules③Grammaticaldescriptionregardlessofmeaning3)Chomskyputforwardthreekindsofgrammar:①Finitestategrammar②Phrasestructuregrammar③Transformationalgrammar4.8.2Threekindsofgrammar1)ThefinitestategrammarItisthesimplesttypeofgrammarwhich,withafiniteamountofapparatus,cangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences.Buttheyallareverysimpleintheirstructure.

Chomskydevisesthisgrammartoshowtheimpracticalityoforganisingalanguagefromaleft-to-rightorder.2)ThefinitestategrammarItisappropriatetodescribe“stimulus-response”processoflearning,butitisinappropriatetoexplainthecomplexitiesofthehumancognitivesystem.Itcontainsdeepstructureandsurfacestructure.Deepstructure:theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction.Surfacestructure:thefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction

Deepstructureandsurfacestructure

Inbrief,thesentencesthathavetheformthatpeoplecanactuallysayarecalledsurfacestructures.Butthedeepstructuremeansthefactthatspeakerstrytoconveythemessageofthesentence.Thatistosay,thesurfacestructureoflanguagedeterminestheformofsentences,whiledeepstructuredeterminesmeaningofsentences.Forexample,(1).Theglassisbroken(2).BreakingtheglassThoughtheformofsentencesisdifferent,butthemessageconveyedissame.Thefactthatweknowtheglassisbrokenisthedeepstructureofsentence,butthetwoformsofsentencesthatconveythefactisthesurfacestructure.

3)PhrasestructuregrammarItconsistssolelyofphrase-structurerulesthatformalisesomeofthetraditionalinsightsofconstituentstructureanalysis.Thisgrammarhasgreatergenerativepowersthanafinitestategrammar.4)PhrasestructuregrammarThephrasestructurerules(alsocalledrewritingrules)areasfollows:a.S→NP+VPb.VP→Verb+NPc.NP→NP(single)NP(plural)d.NP(s)→D+Ne.NP(p)→D+N+sf.D→theg.N→｛man,ball,door,dog,book,…｝h.Verb→aux+Vi.V→｛hit,take,bite,eat,walk,…｝j.Aux→Tense(+M)(+have+en)(+be+ing)k.Tense→PresentPastl.M→｛will,can,may,shall,must,…｝5)Phrasestructuregrammar

Phrasestructurerulesarecalledrewritingrules.Thegenerativeprocessofasentenceistheprocessofrewritingonesymbolintoanother.Forexample,howtoformthesentence“Themanhittheball”?Wemustuserulesandrepresentthemby“bracketing”and“diagramming”.TheGenerativeProcessofASentence:Bracketing:(NP(Det(the)N(man)VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball))))Diagraming:SNPVPDetNVerbNP

DetNthemanhittheball

6)Transformationalrules(T-rules)aretheoperationsthatadd，deleteorchangeelementsinonestructuretoproduceanotherstructure.Itreferstoalltherulesthatapplyafteralllexiconitemshavebeeninsertedintothestructures.7)Chomskyhaslisted16transformationalrulesforEnglish.Forexample:

Jack

hasnot

finishedhiswork.ThefirstpartisanNP.Thesecondpartcanbeanalysedintoa“concordelement”(Forrealisationoftheinflectedformslike“has”,etc.),representedbyC,plusamodalverb,have,thatis,“C+have”.Thethirdpartcanberepresentedwithanellipsis,foritisnotimportant.Structuralanalysis:NP---C+have---…Structuralchanges:X1-X2-X3→X1-X2+n’t-X3EachpartssubstituedwithX1,X2,X3Thetransformationalrulefornegationoftheformer8)Phrasestructuregrammar○Twokindsoftransformationalrule:obligatoryandoptional

thetransformationofnegation,thepassivevoice,etc.Thetransformationofauxiliariesandparticles4.8.3Somedefectsinthetheory①Thetransformationalrulesaretoopowerful.②Therulesmaygenerateill-formedsentencesaswellaswell-formedones.Forexample,withtherulesSNP+VP,andVPV+NP,theremightbegeneratedthefollowingtwo:SSNPVPNPVPVNPVNPJohndrinkwinewinedrinkJohn③Thetransformationalrulesforthepassivevoicecannotbeusedatwill,forsomeoftheEnglishverbsdonothavepassivestructures.SNPAuxVP

DetNPPThemotheroftheboyandthegirlwillarrivesoon.S

NPAuxVPNPNPThemotheroftheboyandthegirlwillarrivesoon.④phrasestructureistooflexible4.9ThestandardTheory1)Chomskysaysthatagenerativegrammarshouldconsistofthreecomponents:syntactic,phonologicalandsemantic.Therelationshipsofthethreecomponentscanbeillustratedbythefollowingdiagram:

Syntacticcomponent\BaseComponentRewritingRulesLexiconDeepStructureT-RulesSurfaceStructureSemanticComponentPhonologicalRulesSemanticRepresentationPhonologicalRepresentationRe-writingRulesgeneratedeepstructureofsentence,transformationalrulestransformdeepstructureintosurfacestructure.semanticcomponentmakessemanticinterpretationondeepstructure,phonologicalcomponentmakesphonologicalinterpretationonsurfacestructure.2)ItsadvantagesovertheClassicalTheory①Transformationcanonlychangetheformsofsentencesandarenotallowedtoalterthemeaning.②ToruleoutthegenerationofsentenceslikeWinedrinksJohn,thereisnowaselectionalrestrictiontoensurethattheanimatenounappearsbeforetheverbandinanimatenounappearsaftertheverb.③Restrictionsareputontransformationsinordernottogenerateill-formedsentences.④Accordingtore-writingrules,sentencescanbeembedded,thus,thetheorynowcoversnotonlysimplesentencesbutalsocomplexones.⑤Theruleareproperlyorderedandthereisasetorderinwhichtherulesapply.3)Problemsunsolvedinthetheory①Thetransformationalrulesarestilltoopowerful,fortheycanmoveordeletelinguisticsegments,changethecategories,keeptheoriginalmeaningintact,andvaryaccordingtospecificcircumstances.②Derivednounsandtheircorrespondingverbsareirregularnotonlyintermsofsyntacticfeatures,butalsoinphonologicalandsemanticrelations,whichisignoredintheStandardTheory.③TheStandardTheoryholdsthatsemanticinterpretationsaredeterminedbythedeepstructure,andtransformationalprocesswillnotchangethesentencemeaning.Laterthiswasfoundtobeimpossible.Becauseanykindoftransformationswillchangethesentencemeaning.Forexample,sentence“(1)Everyonelovessomeone”isdifferentfrom“(2)Someoneislovedbyeveryone”.④TheStandardTheorycannotexplaingappedstructuresas:Johnatesomespaghetti,andMarysomemacaroni.⑤Investigationsofmoretypeofrulesshowedthatmanytransformationalrulesmusthavecomplexconstraintsinorderthattheydonotproduceungrammaticalsentences.5.1TheExtendedStandardTheoryandLaterTheories5.1.1TheExtendedStandardTheory1)IntheExtendedStandardTheory,ChomskyrevisedhisStandardTheorytwice.2)Inhisfirstrevision,Chomskymovedpartofsemanticinterpretationtothesurfacestructure.Letustakethecategoriesofthelogicalcomponentforexample:(1).Notmanyarrowshitthetarget(2).Manyarrowsdidn’hitthetargetThedeepstructureis“NOT”.Throughtransformations,thetwosentencesdiffersemanticallyduetologicalcomponentNOT.Thus,semanticinterpretationdoesplayrolesinsurfacestructure.ButChomskystillbelievessemanticisdeterminedbydeepstructure.3)Thesecondrevisioninvolvesthewholetheoreticalframework,whichcanbeillustratedbythefollowingdiagram.*ThemostremarkablechangeisthatChomskynowcompletelyputssemanticinterpretationinthesurfacestructure.

Phrasestructure;Lexicon

TheTransformationalComponentPhonologicalRulesSemanticInterpretativeRulesTheBaseComponentDeepStructureSurfaceStructurePhonologicalRepresentationLogicalFormRepresentation5.1.2GovernmentandBinding1)TGgrammarentersthefourthperiodofdevelopmentwiththeoryofGB.ThistheoryconsistsofX-barTheory,θ-Theory,BoundingTheory,GovernmentTheory,CaseTheory,ControlTheory,andBindingTheory.2)InthetheoryofGovernmentandBinding,thereisanewconcept:theemptycategory.Chomskybelievesthatthroughtheemptycategory,wecanfurthergettoknowaboutthemechanismoflanguage.Butthistheoryisnotyetmature.3)Gonvernmentandbindingtheory(/wiki/Government_and_binding_theory)①Thenamereferstotwocentralsubtheoriesofthetheory:government,whichisanabstractsyntacticrelation,andbinding,whichdealswiththereferentsofpronouns,anaphors,andreferentialtheory.GBwasthefirsttheorytobebasedontheprinciplesandparametersmodeloflanguage,whichalsounderliesthelaterdevelopmentsoftheMinimalistProgram.

②GovernmentGovernmentisdefinedasfollows:AgovernsBifandonlyifAisagovernorandAm-commandsBandnobarrierintervenesbetweenAandB.

Governorsareheadsofthelexicalcategories(V,N,A,P)andtensedI(T).Am-commandsBifAdoesnotdominateBandBdoesnotdominateAandthefirstmaximalprojectionofAdominatesB.ThemaximalprojectionofaheadXisXP.Thismeansthatforexampleinastructurelikethefollowing,Am-commandsB,butBdoesnotm-commandA:③BindingBindingcanbedefinedasfollows:Anelementαbindsanelementβifandonlyifαc-commandsβ,andαandβcorefer.Considerthesentence"Johnsawhismother."whichisdiagrammedbelowusingsimplephrasestructurerules.TheNP"John"c-commands"his"becausethefirstparentoftheNP,S,contains"his"."John"and"his"arealsocorererential(theyrefertothesameperson),therefore"John"binds"his".(1)Johnsawhim.(2)Johnsawhimself.(3)HimselfsawJohn.(4)JohnsawJohn.Bindingisused,alongwithparticularbindingprinciples,toexplaintheungrammaticalityofthosestatements.TheapplicablerulesarecalledBindingPrincipleA,BindingPrincipleB,andBindingPrincipleC.PrincipleA:ananaphor(reflexiveorreciprocal,suchas"eachother")mustbeboundinitsgoverningcategory(roughly,theclause).Since"himself"isnotc-commandedby"John"insentence[3],PrincipleAisviolated.PrincipleB:apronounmustbefree(i.e.,notbound)withinitsgoverningcategory(roughly,theclause).Insentence[1],"him"isboundby"John",violatingPrincipleB.PrincipleC:anR-expressionmustbefree(i.e.,notbound).R-expressions(e.g."thedog"or"John")arereferentialexpressions:unlikepronounsandanaphora,theyindependentlyrefer,i.e.,pickoutentitiesintheworld.Insentence[4],thefirstinstanceof"John"bindsthesecond,violatingPrincipleC.5.2TheMinimalistProgram1)TheMinimalistProgramismotivatedbytworelatedquestions:①Whatarethegeneralconditionsthatthehumanlanguagefacultyshouldbeexpectedtosatisfy?②Towhatextentisthelanguagefacultydeterminedbytheseconditions,withoutaspecialstructurethatliesbeyondthem?2)Remarkablechangesinthenewtheory:

①SomeofthediscreteanalyticalmodelsintheGBarediscardedandthetwolevelsofanalysis,thedeepstructureandthesurfacestructure,areleftout.②Theimportantconceptof“government”intheprevioustheoryisrejectedandthefactsinterpretedbythetheoryofgovernmentarereplacedbyseveralrevisedconcepts,thusthetheoryofgovernmenthasturnedfromasubsystemofuniversalgrammarintotheinterpretativeconstraintoftheoutputcondition.3)Inthe1990’s,ChomskyfurtherdevelopedtheminimalisttheoryinhisMinimalistInquiries:TheFramework(1998).

Inhiswork,Chomskyholdsthattheinitialstatesofhumanlanguagesarethesamewhereasthestatesofacquiringdifferentlanguagesarenot…Whilethefacultyoflanguageconsistsofacognitivesystemthatstoresinformationsuchassound,meaning,andstructures,theperformancesystemretrievesandusestheinformation.Heraisesaprofoundquestion:Howwellisthelanguagefacultydesigned?Chomskyimaginesacaseinwhichacertainprimatewhichhasbeenrecognizeditsmindbygivingitthefacultyoflanguage…Thus,heputforwardthestrongestminimalistthesis:Linguisticmechanismistheidealsolutiontotheproblemoflegibilityconditions.

5.3ReconsiderationonTGGrammar5.3.1Itsconsistentaimsandpurposes

ThedevelopmentofTGGrammarcanberegardedasaprocessofconstantlyminimalizingtheoriesandcontrollingthegenerativepowers.Althoughithasinvolvedputtingforward,revising,andcancelingofmanyspecificrules,hypotheses,mechanisms,andtheoreticalmodels,itsaimsandpurposeshavebeenconsistent,i.e.toexplorethenature,originandtheusesofhumanknowledgeonlanguage.5.3.2ItsMainFeatures

1）Chomskydefineslanguageasasetofrulesorprinciples.2)Hebelievesthattheaimoflinguisticistoproduceagenerativegrammarwhichcapturesthetacitknowledgeofthenativespeakerofhislanguage.3)Chomskyandhisfollowersareinterestedinanydatathatrevealthenativespeaker’stacitknowledge.Theyseldomusewhatnativespeakersactuallysay;theyrelyontheirownintuition.4)Themethodologyishypothesis-deductive.5)Itfollowsrationalisminphilosophyandmentalisminpsychology.5.3.3Theinfluence

Inthelate1950s,theappearanceofTGGrammarinAmericaviolentlypunchedtheprevailingstructuralistdescriptivelinguistics.Chomsky'stheoriesarepopular,particularlyintheUnitedState,buttheyhaveneverbeenfreefromcontroversy.Criticismhascomefromanumberofdifferentdirections.Somecritics(seelanguagelearning)havequestionedwhetheritisnecessarytopositUniversalGrammarinordertoexplainchildlanguageacquisition,arguingthatdomain-generallearningmechanismsaresufficient.Todaytherearemanydifferentbranchesofgenerativegrammar;onecanviewgrammaticalframeworkssuchashead-drivenphrasestructuregrammar,lexicalfunctionalgrammarandcombinatorycategorialgrammarasbroadlyChomskyandgenerativeinorientation,butwithsignificantdifferencesinexecution.5.4Conclusionofpresentation

InthepresentationgivenbyMissXu,sheintroducesdefinitionofsyntax,shequotestwodefinitionsfromtwoChinesescholars,whileinheropinion,SyntaxisaboutFORMATION&FORMULATION.ShetalksaboutapproachesofSyntax:Traditionalapproach,Structuralapproach,Generativeapproach.ThensheintroducesSyntaxrelation:positionalrelation,relationofsubstitutability,relationofco-occurrence.Inthenextpart,lexical\grammaticalcategoriesareentailed.TheformerincludesNoun,Verb,Adjective,etc.Thelatterincludesnumber,gender,tense,mood,etc.AndsheintroducesSyntacticfunctions,namely,subject,predicate,object,complement,adverbial.Inthepartof“Phraseclausesentence”,arelationisillustrated:word→phrase→clause→sentence.Somerulesareentailed,likePhrasestucturerule,theXPrule,theXbartheory.ThenweknowaboutthedefinitonofICanalysis,namely,dividingthesentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.Theanalysiscanbecarriedoutinwaysofbinarycutting,bracketing,uprightlines,treediagrams.Accordingtoher,Endocentricconstructionmeans”agroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup”.ButExocentricconstructionmeans“agroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole”.AtlastweknowthatEndocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:

Coordinationandsubordination.Coordinationmeans:

groupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Subordinationme