新編簡明英語語言學(xué)教程第二版 練習(xí)題 參考答案

------------------------------------------------------------------------新編簡明英語語言學(xué)教程第二版練習(xí)題參考答案《新編簡明英語語言學(xué)教程》第二版練習(xí)題參考答案Chapter1Introduction1.Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.答：Linguisticsisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,thelinguistshastocollectandobservelanguagefactsfirst,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Thehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation,thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?答：Themajorbranchesoflinguisticsare:(1)phonetics:itstudiesthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication;(2)phonology:itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication;(3)morphology:itstudiesthewayinwhichlinguisticsymbolsrepresentingsoundsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords;(4)syntax:itstudiestheruleswhichgovernhowwordsarecombinedtoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguages;(5)semantics:itstudiesmeaningconveyedbylanguage;(6)pragmatics:itstudiesthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.3.Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?答：Thegeneralapproachthustraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguageovertheyearsisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Second,modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Then,modemlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?答：Inmodemlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Becausepeoplebelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.5.Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?答：Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday'sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.Thustheirdataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthentic.6.HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?答：Saussure'sdistinctionandChomsky'sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.7.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?答：Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Fourth,languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.8.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?答：Themainfeaturesofhumanlanguagearetermeddesignfeatures.Theyinclude:1)ArbitrarinessLanguageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.2)ProductivityLanguageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.3)DualityLanguageconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.4)DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisiswhat“displacement”means.5)CulturaltransmissionWhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.9.Whatarethemajorfunctionsoflanguage?Thinkofyourownexamplesforillustration.答：Threemainfunctionsareoftenrecognizedoflanguage:thedescriptivefunction,theexpressivefunction,andthesocialfunction.Thedescriptivefunctionisthefunctiontoconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbeassertedordenied,andinsomecasesevenverified.Forexample:“Chinaisalargecountrywithalonghistory.”Theexpressivefunctionsuppliesinformationabouttheuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudices,andvalues.Forexample:“Iwillnevergowindow-shoppingwithher.”Thesocialfunctionservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople..Forexample:“Weareyourfirmsupporters.”Chapter2SpeechSounds1.Whatarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?答：Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismoreprimarythanwriting,forreasons,pleaserefertotheanswertothefifthprobleminthelastchapter.2.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?答：VoicingisaqualityofspeechsoundsandafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Itiscausedbythevibrationofthevocalcords.3.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?答：Thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Thelatter,i.e.thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]isusedforthesounds[l]inthefourwordsleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[helθ].Asamatteroffact,thesound[l]inallthesefoursoundcombinationsdiffersslightly.The[l]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledadear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[1]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear[1]asin“l(fā)eaf”.Itiscalleddark[?]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[?]isusedtoindicateit.Theninthesoundcombination[helθ],thesound[l]isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound[θ],itspronunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadental[l],andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[、]isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedas[helθ].Anotherexampleistheconsonant[p].Weallknowthat[p]ispronounceddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesound[p]ispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallraised“h”isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedas[ph?t]andspitistranscribedas[sp?t].4.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?答：Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,nasalsandglides.Intermsofplaceofarticulation,itcanbeclassifiedintofollowingtypes:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velarandglottal.5.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?答：Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,central,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Tofurtherdistinguishmembersofeachgroup,weneedtoapplyanothercriterion,i.e.theopennessofthemouth.Accordingly,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.Athirdcriterionthatisoftenusedintheclassificationofvowelsistheshapeofthelips.InEnglish,allthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunfoundedvowels,i.e.,withoutroundingthelips,andallthebackvowels,withtheexceptionof[a:],arerounded.Itshouldbenotedthatsomefrontvowelscanbepronouncedwithroundedlips.6.A.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddescriptions:1)voicedpalatalaffricate2)voicelesslabiodentalfricative3)voicedalveolarstop4)front,close,short5)back,semi-open,long6)voicelessbilabialstopB.Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:1)[t]2)[l]3)[?]4)[w]5)[?]6)[?]答：A.(1)[?](2)[f](3)[d](4)[?](5)[?:](6)[p]B.(1)voicelessalveolarstop(2)voicedalveolarliquid(3)voicelesspalatalaffricate(4)voicedbilabialglide(5)back,close,short(6)front,open7.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,[l]and[?],[ph]and[p],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?答：(1)Bothphonologyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage––thespeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.(2)Aphonologistwillbemoreinterestedinit.Becauseoneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindoutrulethatgovernsthedistributionof[l]and[?],[ph]and[p].8.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?答：Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme/l/inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[?],clear[l],etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/.9.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.答：Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.TherearemanysuchsequentialrulesinEnglish.Forexample,ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Thatiswhy[lbik][lkbi]areimpossiblecombinationsinEnglish.Theyhaveviolatedtherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Assimilationofneighbouringsoundsis,forthemostpart,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Whenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This“sloppy”tendencymaybecomeregularizedasrulesoflanguage.WeallknowthatnasalizationisnotaphonologicalfeatureinEnglish,i.e.,itdoesnotdistinguishmeaning.ButthisdoesnotmeanthatvowelsinEnglisharenevernasalizedinactualpronunciation;infacttheyarenasalizedincertainphoneticcontexts.Forexample,the[i:]soundisnasalizedinwordslikebean,green,team,andscream.Thisisbecauseinallthesesoundcombinationsthe[i:]soundisfollowedbyanasal[n]or[m].Theassimilationrulealsoaccountsforthevaryingpronunciationofthealveolarnasal[n]insomesoundcombinations.Theruleisthatwithinaword,thenasal[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationastheconsonantthatfollowsit.WeknowthatinEnglishtheprefixin-canbeaddedtomaadjectivetomakethemeaningofthewordnegative,e.g.discreet–indiscreet,correct–incorrect.Butthe[n]soundintheprefixin-isnotalwayspronouncedasanalveolarnasal.Itissointhewordindiscreetbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsit,i.e.[d],isanalveolarstop,butthe[n]soundinthewordincorrectisactuallypronouncedasavelarnasal,i.e.[?];thisisbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsitis[k],whichisavelarstop.Sowecanseethatwhilepronouncingthesound[n],weare“copying”afeatureoftheconsonantthatfollowsit.Deletionruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Wehavenoticedthatinthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno[g]soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,the[g]representedbythelettergispronounced.Therulecanbestatedas:Deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Giventherule,thephonemicrepresentationofthestemsinsign–signature,resign–resignation,phlegm–phlegmatic,paradigm–paradigmaticwillincludethephoneme/g/,whichwillbedeletedaccordingtotheregularruleifnosuffixisadded.10.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?答：Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.Forexample,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanoun,toaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Tonesarepitchvariationswhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Chapter3Morphology1.Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacinga“+”betweeneachmorphemeandthenext:a.microfilee.telecommunicationb.bedraggledf.forefatherc.announcementg.psychophysicsd.predigestionh.mechanist答：a.micro+fileb.be+draggle+edc.announce+mentd.pre+digest+ione.tele+communicate+ionf.fore+fatherg.psycho+physicsh.mechan+ist2.Thinkofthreemorphemesuffixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybesuffixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.Model:-orsuffix:-ormeaning:thepersonorthingperformingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:actor,“onewhoactsinstageplays,motionpictures,etc.”translator,“onewhotranslates”答：(1)suffix:-ablemeaning:somethingcanbedoneorispossiblestemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:acceptable,“canbeaccepted”respectable,“canberespected”(2)suffix:-lymeaning:functionalstemtype:addedtoadjectivesexamples:freely.“adverbialformof‘free’”quickly,“adverbialformof'quick'”.(3)suffix:-eemeaning:thepersonreceivingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:employee,“onewhoworksinacompany”interviewee,“onewhoisinterviewed”3.Thinkofthreemorphemeprefixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybeprefixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.Model:a-prefix:a-meaning:“without;not”stemtype:addedtoadjectivesexamples:asymmetric,“l(fā)ackingsymmetry”asexual,“withoutsexorsexorgans”答：(1)prefix:dis-meaning:showinganoppositestemtype:addedtoverbsornounsexamples:disapprove,“donotapprove”dishonesty,“l(fā)ackofhonesty”.(2)prefix:anti-meaning:against,opposedtostemtype:addedtonounsoradjectivesexamples:antinuclear,“opposingtheuseofatomicweaponsandpower”antisocial,“opposedorharmfultothelawsandcustomsofanorganizedcommunity.”(3)prefix:counter-meaning:theoppositeofstemtype:addedtonounsoradjectives.examples:counterproductive,“producingresultsoppositetothoseintended”counteract,“actagainstandreducetheforceoreffectof(sth.)”4.Theitalicizedpartineachofthefollowingsentencesisaninflectionalmorpheme.Studyeachinflectionalmorphemecarefullyandpointoutitsgrammaticalmeaning.Suemovesinhigh-societycirclesinLondon.AtrafficwardenaskedJohntomovehiscar.TheclubhasmovedtoFriday,February22nd.Thebranchesofthetreesaremovingbackandforth.答：(1)thethirdpersonsingular(2)thepasttense(3)thepresentperfect(4)thepresentprogressive5.Determinewhetherthewordsineachofthefollowinggroupsarerelatedtooneanotherbyprocessesofinflectionorderivation.a)go,goes,going,goneb)discover,discovery,discoverer,discoverable,discoverabilityc)inventor,inventor’s,inventors,inventors’d)democracy,democrat,democratic,democratize答：(略)6.Thefollowingsentencescontainbothderivationalandinflectionalaffixes.Underlineallofthederivationalaffixesandcircletheinflectionalaffixes.a)Thefarmer’scowsescaped.b)Itwasraining.c)Thosesocksareinexpensive.d)Jimneedsthenewercopy.e)Thestrongestrowercontinued.f)Shequicklyclosedthebook.g)Thealphabetizationwentwell.答：(略)Chapter4Syntax1.Whatissyntax?Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.2.Whatisphrasestructurerule?Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelements(i.e.specifiers,heads,andcomplements)thatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.ThephrasestructuralruleforNP,VP,AP,andPPcanbewrittenasfollows:NP→(Det)N(PP)...VP→(Qual)V(NP)...AP→(Deg)A(PP)...PP→(Deg)P(NP)...Thegeneralphrasalstructuralrule(XstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP):TheXPrule:XP→(specifier)X(complement)3.Whatiscategory?Howtodetermineaword'scategory?Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Todetermineaword'scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed,namelymeaning,inflectionanddistribution.Aword'sdistributionalfactstogetherwithinformationaboutitsmeaningandinflectionalcapabilitieshelpidentifyitssyntacticcategory.4.Whatiscoordinatestructureandwhatpropertiesdoesithave?Thestructureformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctioniscalledcoordinatestructures.Conjunctionexhibitsfourimportantproperties:1)Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.2)Acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.3)Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.4)Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.5.Whatelementsdoesaphrasecontainandwhatroledoeseachelementplay?Aphraseusuallycontainsthefollowingelements:head,specifierandcomplement.Sometimesitalsocontainsanotherkindofelementtermedmodifier.TheroleofeachelementHead:Headisthewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed.Specifier:Specifierhasbothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles.Semantically,ithelpstomakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.Syntactically,ittypicallymarksaphraseboundary.Complement:Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.Modifier:Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesoftheheads.6.Whatisdeepstructureandwhatissurfacestructure?Therearetwolevelsofsyntacticstructure.Thefirst,formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead'ssubcategorizationproperties,iscalleddeepstructure(orD-structure).Thesecond,correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsurfacestructure(orS-structure).7.Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.a)Theoldladygotoffthebuscarefully.DetANVPDetNAdvb)Thecarsuddenlycrashedontotheriverbank.DetNAdvVPDetNc)Theblindingsnowstormmightdelaytheopeningoftheschools.DetANAuxVDetNPDetNd)Thisclothfeelsquitesoft.DetNVDegA（以下8-12題只作初步的的成分劃分，未畫樹形圖,僅供參考）8.Thefollowingphrasesincludeahead,acomplement,andaspecifier.Drawtheappropriatetreestructureforeach.a)richinmineralsXP(AP)→head(rich)A+complement(inminerals)PPb)oftenreaddetectivestoriesXP(VP)→specifier(often)Qual+head(read)V+complement(detectivestories)NPc)theargumentagainsttheproposalsXP(NP)→specifier(the)Det+head(argument)N+complement(againsttheproposals)PPd)alreadyabovethewindowXP(VP)→specifier(already)Deg+head(above)P+complement(thewindow)NP9.Thefollowingsentencescontainmodifiersofvarioustypes.Foreachsentence,firstidentifythemodifier(s),thendrawthetreestructures.（劃底線的為動詞的修飾語，斜體的為名詞的修飾語）a)Acrippledpassengerlandedtheairplanewithextremecaution.b)Ahugemoonhungintheblacksky.c)Themanexaminedhiscarcarefullyyesterday.d)Awoodenhutnearthelakecollapsedinthestorm.10.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainconjoinedcategories.Drawatreestructureforeachofthesentences.（劃底線的為并列的范疇）a)Jimhaswashedthedirtyshirtsandpants.b)Helenputonherclothesandwentout.c)Maryisfondofliteraturebuttiredofstatistics.11.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainembeddedclausesthatfunctionascomplementsofaverb,anadjective,aprepositionoranoun.Drawatreestructureforeachsentence.（劃底線的為補(bǔ)語從句）a)YouknowthatIhatewar.b)GerrybelievesthefactthatAnnaflunkedtheEnglishexam.c)ChriswashappythathisfatherboughthimaRolls-Royce.d)Thechildrenarguedoverwhetherbatshadwings.12.Eachofthefollowingsentencescontainsarelativeclause.Drawthedeepstructureandthesurfacestructuretreesforeachofthesesentences.（劃底線的為關(guān)系從句）a)Theessaythathewrotewasexcellent.b)Herbertboughtahousethatshelovedc)Thegirlwhomheadoresmajorsinlinguistics.13.Thederivationsofthefollowingsentencesinvolvetheinversiontransformation.Givethedeepstructureandthesurfacestructureofeachofthesesentences.a)Wouldyoucometomorrow?(surfacestructure)youwouldcometomorrow(deepstructure)b)WhatdidHelenbringtotheparty?(surfacestructure)Helenbroughtwhattotheparty(deepstructure)c)Whobrokethewindow?(surfacestructure)whobrokethewindow(deepstructure)Chapter5Semantics1.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?答：(1