建筑物的組成及高層結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)專業(yè)卒業(yè)

ComponentsofABuildingandTallBuildingsMaterialsandstructuralformsarecombinedtomakeupthevariouspartsofabuilding,includingtheload-carryingframe,skin,floors,andpartitions.Thebuildingalsohasmechanicalandelectricalsystems,suchaselevators,heatingandcoolingsystems,andlightingsystems.Thesuperstructureisthatpartofabuildingaboveground,andthesubstructureandfoundationisthatpartofabuildingbelowground.Theskyscraperowesitsexistencetotwodevelopmentsofthe19thcentury:steelskeletonconstructionandthepassengerelevator.SteelasaconstructionmaterialdatesfromtheintroductionoftheBessemerconverterin1885.GustaveEiffel(1832-1932)introducedsteelconstructioninFrance.HisdesignsfortheGaleriedesMachinesandtheTowerfortheParisExpositionof1889expressedthelightnessofthesteelframework.TheEiffelTower,984feet(300meters)high,wasthetalleststructurebuiltbymanandwasnotsurpasseduntil40yearslaterbyaseriesofAmericanskyscrapers.ThefirstelevatorwasinstalledbyElishaOtisinstalledthefirstelevatorinadepartmentstoreinNewYorkin1857.In1889;EiffelinstalledthefirstelevatorsonagrandscaleintheEiffelTower,whosehydraulicelevatorscouldtransport2,350passengerstothesummiteveryhour.Load-CarryingFrame.Untilthelate19thcentury,theexteriorwallsofabuildingwereusedasbearingwallstosupportthefloors.Thisconstructionisessentiallyapostandlinteltype,anditisstillusedinframeconstructionforhouses.Bearing-wallconstructionlimitedtheheightofbuildingsbecauseoftheenormouswallthicknessrequired；Forinstance,the16-storyMonadnockBuildingbuiltinthe1880’sinChicagohadwalls5feet(1.5meters)thickatthelowerfloors.In1883,WilliamLeBaronJenney(1832-1907)supportedfloorsoncast-ironcolumnstoformacage-likeconstruction.Skeletonconstruction,consistingofsteelbeamsandcolumns,wasfirstusedin1889.Asaconsequenceofskeletonconstruction,theenclosingwallsbecomea“curtainwall”ratherthanservingasupportingfunction.Masonrywasthecurtainwallmaterialuntilthe1930’s,whenlightmetalandglasscurtainwallswereused.Aftertheintroductionofbuildingscontinuedtoincreaserapidly.AlltallbuildingswerebuiltwithaskeletonofsteeluntilWorldWarⅡ.Afterthewar,theshortageofsteelandtheimprovedqualityofconcreteledtotallbuildingbeingbuiltofreinforcedconcrete.MarinaTower(1962)inChicagoisthetallestconcretebuildingintheUnitedStates；Itsheight—588feet(179meters)—isexceededbythe650-foot(198-meter)PostOfficeTowerinLondonandbyothertowers.Achangeinattitudeaboutskyscraperconstructionhasbroughtareturntotheuseofthebearingwall.InNewYorkCity,theColumbiaBroadcastingSystemBuilding,designedbyEeroSaarinenin1962,hasaperimeterwallconsistingof5-foot(1.5meter)wideconcretecolumnsspaced10feet(3meters)fromcolumncentertocenter.Thisperimeterwall,ineffect,constitutesabearingwall.Onereasonforthistrendisthatstiffnessagainsttheactionofwindcanbeeconomicallyobtainedbyusingthewallsofthebuildingasatube；theWorldTradeCenterbuildingisanotherexampleofthistubeapproach.Incontrast,rigidframesorverticaltrussesareusuallyprovidedtogivelateralstability.Skin.Theskinofabuildingconsistsofbothtransparentelements(windows)andopaqueelements(walls).Windowsaretraditionallyglass,althoughplasticsarebeingused,especiallyinschoolswherebreakagecreatesamaintenanceproblem.Thewallelements,whichareusedtocoverthestructureandaresupportedbyit,arebuiltofavarietyofmaterials:brick,precastconcrete,stone,opaqueglass,plastics,steel,andaluminum.Woodisusedmainlyinhouseconstruction；Itisnotgenerallyusedforcommercial,industrial,orpublicbuildingbecauseofthefirehazard.Floors.Theconstructionofthefloorsinabuildingdependsonthebasicstructuralframethatisused.Insteelskeletonconstruction,floorsareeitherslabsofconcreterestingonsteelbeamsoradeckconsistingofcorrugatedsteelwithaconcretetopping.Inconcreteconstruction,thefloorsareeitherslabsofconcreteonconcretebeamsoraseriesofcloselyspacedconcretebeams(ribs)intwodirectionstoppedwithathinconcreteslab,givingtheappearanceofawaffleonitsunderside.Thekindoffloorthatisuseddependsonthespanbetweensupportingcolumnsorwallsandthefunctionofthespace.Inanapartmentbuilding,forinstance,wherewallsandcolumnsarespacedat12to18feet(3.7to5.5meters),themostpopularconstructionisasolidconcreteslabwithnobeams.Theundersideoftheslabservesastheceilingforthespacebelowit.Corrugatedsteeldecksareoftenusedinofficebuildingsbecausethecorrugations,whenenclosedbyanothersheetofmetal,formductsfortelephoneandelectricallines.MechanicalandElectricalSystems.Amodernbuildingnotonlycontainsthespaceforwhichitisintended(office,classroom,apartment)butalsocontainsancillaryspaceformechanicalandelectricalsystemsthathelptoprovideacomfortableenvironment.Theseancillaryspacesinaskyscraperofficebuildingmayconstitute25%ofthetotalbuildingarea.Theimportanceofheating,ventilating,electrical,andplumbingsystemsinanofficebuildingisshownbythefactthat40%oftheconstructionbudgetisallocatedtothem.Becauseoftheincreaseduseofsealedbuildingwithwindowsthatcannotbeopened,elaboratemechanicalsystemsareprovidedforventilationandairconditioning.Ductsandpipescarryfreshairfromcentralfanroomsandairconditioningmachinery.Theceiling,whichissuspendedbelowtheupperfloorconstruction,concealstheductworkandcontainsthelightingunits.Electricalwiringforpowerandfortelephonecommunicationmayalsobelocatedinthisceilingspaceormaybeburiedinthefloorconstructioninpipesorconduits.Therehavebeenattemptstoincorporatethemechanicalandelectricalsystemsintothearchitectureofbuildingbyfranklyexpressingthem；Forexample,theAmericanRepublicInsuranceCompanyBuilding(1965)inDesMoines,Iowa,exposesboththeductsandthefloorstructureinanorganizedandelegantpatternanddispenseswiththesuspendedceiling.Thistypeofapproachmakesitpossibletoreducethecostofthebuildingandpermitsinnovations,suchasinthespanofthestructure.SoilsandFoundations.Allbuildingaresupportedontheground,andthereforethenatureofthesoilbecomesanextremelyimportantconsiderationinthedesignofanybuilding.Thedesignofafoundationdependsonmanysoilfactors,suchastypeofsoil,soilstratification,thicknessofsoillaversandtheircompaction,andgroundwaterconditions.Soilsrarelyhaveasinglecomposition；Theygenerallyaremixturesinlayersofvaryingthickness.Forevaluation,soilsaregradedaccordingtoparticlesize,whichincreasesfromsilttoclaytosandtograveltorock.Ingeneral,thelargerparticlesoilswillsupportheavierloadsthanthesmallerones.Thehardestrockcansupportloadsupto100tonspersquarefoot(976.5metrictons/sqmeter),butthesoftestsiltcansupportaloadofonly0.25tonpersquarefoot(2.44metrictons/sqmeter).Allsoilsbeneaththesurfaceareinastateofcompaction；thatis,theyareunderapressurethatisequaltotheweightofthesoilcolumnaboveit.Manysoils(exceptformostsandsandgavels)exhibitelasticproperties—theydeformwhencompressedunderloadandreboundwhentheloadisremoved.Theelasticityofsoilsisoftentime-dependent,thatis,deformationsofthesoiloccuroveralengthoftimewhichmayvaryfromminutestoyearsafteraloadisimposed.Overaperiodoftime,abuildingmaysettleifitimposesaloadonthesoilgreaterthanthenaturalcompactionweightofthesoil.Conversely,abuildingmayheaveifitimposesloadsonthesoilsmallerthanthenaturalcompactionweight.Thesoilmayalsoflowundertheweightofabuilding；Thatis,ittendstobesqueezedout.Duetoboththecompactionandfloweffects,buildingstendsettle.Unevensettlements,exemplifiedbytheleaningtowersinPisaandBologna,canhavedamagingeffects—thebuildingmaylean,wallsandpartitionsmaycrack,windowsanddoorsmaybecomeinoperative,and,intheextreme,abuildingmaycollapse.Uniformsettlementsarenotsoserious,althoughextremeconditions,suchasthoseinMexicoCity,canhaveseriousconsequences.Overthepast100years,achangeinthegroundwaterleveltherehascausedsomebuildingstosettlemorethan10feet(3meters).Becausesuchmovementscanoccurduringandafterconstruction,carefulanalysisofthebehaviorofsoilsunderabuildingisvital.Thegreatvariabilityofsoilshasledtoavarietyofsolutionstothefoundationproblem.Wherefirmsoilexistsclosetothesurface,thesimplestsolutionistorestcolumnsonasmallslabofconcrete(spreadfooting).Wherethesoilissofter,itisnecessarytospreadthecolumnloadoveragreaterarea；inthiscase,acontinuousslabofconcrete(raftormat)underthewholebuildingisused.Incaseswherethesoilnearthesurfaceisunabletosupporttheweightofthebuilding,pilesofwood,steel,orconcretearedrivendowntofirmsoil.Theconstructionofabuildingproceedsnaturallyfromthefoundationuptothesuperstructure.Thedesignprocess,however,proceedsfromtheroofdowntothefoundation(inthedirectionofgravity).Inthepast,thefoundationwasnotsubjecttosystematicinvestigation.Ascientificapproachtothedesignoffoundationshasbeendevelopedinthe20thcentury.KarlTerzaghioftheUnitedStatespioneeredstudiesthatmadeitpossibletomakeaccuratepredictionsofthebehavioroffoundations,usingthescienceofsoilmechanicscoupledwithexplorationandtestingprocedures.Foundationfailuresofthepast,suchastheclassicalexampleoftheleaningtowerinPisa,havebecomealmostnonexistent.Foundationsstillareahiddenbutcostlypartofmanybuildings.Althoughtherehavebeenmanyadvancementsinbuildingconstructiontechnologyingeneral,spectacularachievementshavebeenmadeinthedesignandconstructionofultrahigh-risebuildings.Theearlydevelopmentofhigh-risebuildingsbeganwithstructuralsteelframing.Reinforcedconcreteandstressed-skintubesystemshavesincebeeneconomicallyandcompetitivelyusedinanumberofstructuresforbothresidentialandcommercialpurposes.Thehigh-risebuildingsrangingfrom50to110storiesthatarebeingbuiltallovertheUnitedStatesaretheresultofinnovationsanddevelopmentofnewstructuralsystems.Greaterheightentailsincreasedcolumnandbeamsizestomakebuildingsmorerigidsothatunderwindloadtheywillnotswaybeyondanacceptablelimit.Excessivelateralswaymaycauseseriousrecurringdamagetopartitions,ceilings,andotherarchitecturaldetails.Inaddition,excessiveswaymaycausediscomforttotheoccupantsofthebuildingbecauseoftheirperceptionofsuchmotion.Structuralsystemsofreinforcedconcrete,aswellassteel,takefulladvantageoftheinherentpotentialstiffnessofthetotalbuildingandthereforedonotrequireadditionalstiffeningtolimitthesway.桑In僻a班s碗te記el勝s槐tr電uc悉tu竟re執(zhí),壤fo恭r杠ex鴨am的pl睡e,絲t治he福e殼co瀉no舅my傅c閱an孩b罩e栗de時(shí)fi貓ne扔d貞in煤t森er完ms坐o扶f定th炕e脈to濁t(yī)a逝l系av攪er學(xué)ag威e癢qu濕an戶ti蹦ty盈o給f的st躍ee梅l遵pe杠r欺sq悶ua急re女f夜oo漲t干of獨(dú)f恒lo相or驢a未re浸a稈of駕t捧he殖b積ui酷ld質(zhì)in絲g.原T貌he打g煌ap戴b源et館we耽en理t味he印u昆pp蜘er蓮b屢ou史nd靈ar嚇y秋an海d腿th山e昏lo跑we館r什bo腿un沈da畢ry戶r玉ep輩re拘se遷nt味s權(quán)th桌e表pr覺em豈iu浮m炒fo襖r隔al出l喇la梯te傭ra做l御lo強(qiáng)ad能s.患T輛he條g撞ap引b容et址we姜en丹t腫he澡u報(bào)pp羽er麥b肉ou俯nd竄ar絞y塞an早d循th紅e果lo似we瞎r按bo威un趣da珠ry嫩r娘ep老re棄se徹nt魔s畏th欺e孫pr萄em皇iu咸m岸fo果r個(gè)he栽ig皇ht評(píng)f捆or清t你he紅t飾ra翠di亞ti察on略al莊c勿ol早um懼n-偽an通d-鼠be淺am府f晝r(jià)a腳me貸.辜St韻ru鍵ct反ur影al隔e狂ng維in誓ee濁rs抄h(huán)包av階e般de倦ve茫lo頃pe可d弱st乞ru維ct蔥ur佳a(bǔ)l悔s旱ys烘te轉(zhuǎn)ms毫w掃it希h憲a椒vi晌ew秒t陰o凱el移im陡in砍at笑in夸g晨th鑰is墾p躍re膚mi凈um狠.簽Sy壯st劃em悔s桶in狐s午te把el厘.稼Ta池ll晌b邊ui般ld跡in茫gs傾i稻n缸st組ee團(tuán)l罵de重ve銜lo銷pe棒d活as壽a順r家es釀ul澆t仇of存s德ev轉(zhuǎn)er長(zhǎng)al率t晉yp剪es配o循f華st攻ru疊ct蛇ur倚al訴i減nn勢(shì)ov腔at波io豆ns猜.藍(lán)Th編e差in交no郊va況ti有on拿s今ha艙ve慶b甩ee駁n減ap蜻pl嗚ie散d趙to供t欲he任c萬on茂st習(xí)ru滾ct紅io隊(duì)n被of渣b客ot弟h句of爹fi虜ce礙a鼠nd黨a傅pa充rt醉me鴉nt懼b饞ui種ld更in鵝gs境.旱Fr漂am圣es潑w翻it驚h磨ri研g(shù)i型d商be央lt蘋t猴ru承ss偶es罪.騾In蛙o走rd極er如t催o慶ti拋e升th榴e濃ex內(nèi)te線ri捉or同c淹ol笑um擊ns曾o晝f堡a弓fr待am德e節(jié)st狹ru原ct睛ur蜘e弱to耐t診he梳i慌nt盲er嫩io類r吳ve座rt右ic鑰al遮t妹ru順ss籠es勿,薄a匹sy鉛st千em大o完f得ri宗gi敏d礦be獸lt斷t趴ru滋ss稻es袖a網(wǎng)t殘mi怕d-財(cái)he叫ig單ht哭a逮nd慣a倡t國th娃e熟to洽p典of噸t懸he神b妻ui險(xiǎn)ld恒in卡g邪ma嗓y晝be棒u連se士d.票A況g想oo鐮d途ex胡am皆pl棕e渠of建t頓hi擔(dān)s桂sy吊st央em劣i眾s猶th收e蹤Fi奮rs城t叉Wi枕sc羨on根si吉n俯Ba別nk伍B娛ui域ld偏in州g灘(1滋97綿4)叛i饞n偽Mi秒lw匙au探ke悉e.晌Fr味am禍ed癥t飾ub槳e.所T口he謀m竿ax彎im嗚um刑e揚(yáng)ff娛ic駛ie零nc抄y微of委t父he側(cè)t墓ot贊al好s冰tr殘uc敗tu大re肢o宵f像a唯ta窄ll水b從ui與ld遼in版g,附f慘or柱b場(chǎng)ot表h債st肌re襲ng砌th劉a駁nd案s班ti跡ff窮ne耽ss癥,鄭to頸r慚es搭is漏t厭wi耍nd罪l稀oa壓d錄ca儲(chǔ)n栗be填a獸ch澆ie葵ve油d案on徐ly丸i伯f竟al蔬l翠co法lu倆mn覽e役le眨me豐nt厭s罵ca般n漠be深c畜on丟ne銅ct怪ed由t死o熱ea賢ch扣o競(jìng)th霧er娘i落n膜su毛ch恰a承w以ay位t尾ha盆t變th愿e酒en祝ti墾re也b服ui罰ld穿in歪g柳ac總ts帝a威s奧a撐ho禾ll授ow迎t繪ub里e廁or槐r引ig僅id刃b間ox蒸i劍n通pr熊oj只ec妹ti鄰ng它o醒ut悅o追f趨th治e成gr慮ou耍nd劍.管Th悠is跌p拒ar源ti介cu饑la下r妻st脫ru聯(lián)ct儉ur痰al紙s欠ys表te艱m類wa田s乞pr遵ob肺ab足ly拐u陷se悠d覆fo宇r掘th健e沉fi豐rs謝t屠ti刮me瓜i林n銀th朋e逗43掀-s嘉to臨ry陪r翅ei落nf萄or浙ce菜d標(biāo)co日nc限r(nóng)e倚te紗D位eW識(shí)it稀t有Ch算es沃tn餓ut棉A慕pa傅rt卷me圖nt療B核ui篇ld斷in援g面in醉C盛hi攏ca桿go捷.巴Th榮e鴨mo上st般s醒ig恩ni封fi菌ca肢nt鞏u礦se苗o渴f寫th慶is臥s沉ys虧te師m則is毫i僅n徑th票e凍tw扇in孔s哄tr幼u(yù)c下tu駛ra賊l頌st粉ee連l頭to愛we蠟rs惑o心f潛th匠e注11悅0-判st來or河y道Wo漆rl術(shù)d睜Tr慚ad溉e駁Ce瞇nt營er睜b皺ui墾ld嬸in家g沾in饞N噴ew森Y爹or捎k.系Co恐lu治mn位-d于ia堡go資na炊l摘tr議us疫s肺tu首be叫.糠Th仔e火ex陣te念ri烏or疾c甩ol拔um哄ns兔o艘f娛a該bu怕il診di銀ng煮c坦an縫b級(jí)e媽sp做ac股ed東r答ea太so丈na肚bl鋤y潑fa捎r第ap準(zhǔn)ar構(gòu)t兄an覆d讓ye仁t尼be墻m咽ad董e再to濤w北or逢k誰to泊ge羊th暮er裹a蹤s呆a假tu撥be沖b今y阿co承nn份ec退ti換ng句t啊he化m化wi勁th丘d舒ia咽go翁na匙l凍me年mb籮er炮s新in紹te彼rs來ec守ti娃ng疏a灘t己th積e隆ce凳nt限er障l哄in庸e淋of朋t玉he油c驅(qū)ol木um叼ns柄a睡nd蒜b稼ea車ms焦.播Th起is才s扇im禍pl由e瘋ye升t合ex既tr秤em繳el沫y脂ef共fi修ci交en趟t椒sy獨(dú)st拼em浙w隙as喬u原se燦d衡fo震r視th泊e望fi后rs糞t雞ti閱me蓋o秀n執(zhí)th侄e黃Jo戴hn閉H京an求co均ck露C逐en才te毛r暗in冷C致hi芝ca蓄go耳,原us縱in但g確as樸m摟uc盾h坑st絞ee棵l曾as繳i嚷s狼no向rm版al柿ly穿n嘉ee佳de捆d助fo休r寶a所tr性ad驚it棟io離na燕l(xiāng)聞40嚼-s篩to妖ry凍b謹(jǐn)ui胸ld框in榴g.自Bu塌nd陳le執(zhí)d臂tu美be志.法Wi數(shù)th撫t(yī)暗he板c行on懸ti艷nu悅in漲g素ne店ed績(jī)f剪or斷l(xiāng)腔ar通ge早r伏an峽d赴ta需ll景er頂b肚ui越ld秤in負(fù)gs羨,宏th勇e某fr偶am冬ed傳t掛ub雹e按or聯(lián)t移he店c悲ol廊um捧n-而di精ag講on由al構(gòu)t推ru斃ss捧t項(xiàng)ub里e拆ma絕y茅be葉u擁se加d錫in主a昌b飼un板dl雪ed茂f櫻or魯m旦to膽c免re魯at監(jiān)e猜la琴rg哈er厭t卷ub逐e罩en種ve島lo汗pe掏s廉wh嶼il風(fēng)e風(fēng)ma燃in度ta質(zhì)in偶in晃g紐hi擴(kuò)gh怒e折ff稅ic洲ie煉nc術(shù)y.挽T租he雹1序10都-s栗to證ry使S冠ea肆rs柏R仇oe梨bu那ck報(bào)H誓ea造dq嗎ua醫(yī)rt蓬er天s鄭Bu萄il迫di險(xiǎn)ng盲i池n元Ch灰ic不ag戴o蓄ha衰s顧ni據(jù)ne儉t處ub社es仍,肢bu璃nd厲le采d運(yùn)at禍t狂he露b俗as吃e萄of呆t喇he底b自u(píng)i扇ld身in奶g遵in恐t借hr器ee纖r指ow管s.勸S找om玩e甜of械t例he唉se攜i撕nd餓iv云id據(jù)ua讀l黑tu奮be過s已te份rm芹in惡at瞞e今at石d鞋if雞fe命re睡nt堂h剛ei穗gh鄉(xiāng)ts辣o頸f倉th義e饑bu券il己di窄ng憑,條de陰mo裕ns豎tr皮at融in拳g擦th剝e象un峰li顫mi夾te紀(jì)d器ar東ch奉it籠ec豬tu國ra婆l蛾po方ss廈ib頭il夾it家ie紛s雁of已t鵲hi倍s乒la圖te逼st膜s考tr脹uc扇tu午ra旋l倡co晉nc約ep欺t.擴(kuò)T厲he詳S固ea帽rs臺(tái)t伸ow準(zhǔn)er儲(chǔ),粒at以a亞h僻ei蒜gh敬t久of乳1罷45別0遮ft舍(刑44壇2m航),莖i嗓s艱th默e圖wo爭(zhēng)rl鉤d滴’決s慣ta稼ll歌es懇t梢bu飼il谷di輩ng士.令St蓬re桃ss蝴ed旦-s延ki疫n判tu蜻be貸s囑ys瀉te條m.嚼T得he代t歡ub斜e產(chǎn)st日ru哪ct爛ur屠al屋s亮ys攔te寺m超wa畏s吊de欣ve士lo謀pe嗚d秋fo謎r商im稻pr夜ov個(gè)in絕g余th懲e層re翼si艘st完an吸c(diǎn)e皺t逢o彼la攀te蹈ra斤l雷fo逗rc筆es拆(酷wi映nd眾o田r陡ea添rt遇hq蕉ua憑ke耗)蟲an味d得th框e做co殺nt舊ro腎l絲of使d睡ri幫ft蜓(憂la緣te不ra遙l爭(zhēng)bu櫻il權(quán)di答ng疲m尼ov柿em突en召t)莊i唐n俱hi滴gh屑-r榆is鄭e儀bu掛il咳di悅ng肝.企Th滴e旬st堆re芬ss領(lǐng)ed棒-s威ki逗n妻tu盤be傘t掩ak臨es筑t欺he流t株ub慨e命sy攝st鼠em寫a嗚s水te壟p冬fu涂rt煤he脅r.座T損he收d捏ev閱el替op群me豎nt志o蔬f窩th店e干st判re騰ss浪ed弟-s揪ki度n靈tu品be軋u引ti塘li窗ze篩s匙th歸e先fa草ca難de躬o塘f配th膠e透bu饞il毅di步ng茂a滅s夸a悅st塑ru還ct械ur輛al剩e取le字me景nt期w狀hi謀ch雕a谷ct宇s云wi恰th籌a樂ct辯s賊wi錦th隙t目he仗f雀ra令me坑d強(qiáng)tu由be神,最th方us柱p礦ro噸vi錯(cuò)di舍ng聾a蛙n孔ef嬸fi莖ci差en堂t趟wa牢y欲of游r屑es風(fēng)is逼ti耳ng朽l(xiāng)轎at工er光al動(dòng)l軋oa鬧ds特i服n蕉hi西gh即-r辨is雪e肚bu翻il扎di梳ng配s,劇a抖nd議r好es愁ul臂ti奸ng血i半n瞇co氧st噴-e走ff屢ec揉ti密ve豬c板ol龜um恐n-慰fr佳ee開i會(huì)nt稻er搶io餃r滾sp出ac店e線wi掙th皆a佛h逢ig滔h錦ra勢(shì)ti述o怪of梯n從et援t狼o賀gr璃os非s策fl錘oo稅r扇ar屈ea省.魚Be框ca執(zhí)us拿e悉of棄t巧he丙c嬌on忽tr扔ib蒙ut順io竄n牛of分t數(shù)he公s擔(dān)tr謠es杯se淹d-室sk縱in翠f鵝ac祖ad纖e,牲t炮he構(gòu)f亂ra剖me隨d左me貌mb茶er拍s桿of憲t腥he秋t熟ub晝e附re仇qu鐘ir帝e悶le涌ss姐m驅(qū)as云s,揪a炭nd研a獨(dú)re逝t撞hu影s腔li踩gh珠te音r譜an例d粱le鞠ss帖e者xp瞇an勢(shì)si昆ve礦.筆Al街l馳th文e簡(jiǎn)ty腥pi搭ca和l價(jià)co心lu勻mn冷s頌an扁d添sp經(jīng)an吩dr乒el羞b根ea籌ms逃a奉re雜s恩ta講nd膏ar財(cái)d腿ro墊ll犁ed思s速ha酒pe表s,芹m塑in續(xù)im湊iz逐in突g累th砌e嗓us營e扁an統(tǒng)d渡co還st告o越f話sp賭ec騾ia顫l敲bu乏il半t-策up傾m咳em純be旦rs艙.精Th漸e猴de許pt舍h澡re著qu衛(wèi)ir換em挪en潔t罩fo掛r鳴th飯e宜pe短ri宜me駱te薯r術(shù)sp濤an塊dr怕el謝b救ea遠(yuǎn)ms樣i葛s驅(qū)al化so布r配ed滾uc連ed潮,箱an使d崗th喝e劫ne慌ed節(jié)f太or易u(yù)愧ps脂et禿b著ea破ms算a叛bo斧ve冤f前l(fā)o壯or甜s,廚w耕hi餓ch森w蔑ou擺ld粉e畏nc躲ro償ac扒h借on艘v乞al庸ua嫩bl縮e唐sp監(jiān)ac裝e,漆i她s油mi蘋ni鞭mi鬼ze逢d.瞞T亮he箭s驅(qū)tr懂uc攤tu腐ra慰l訓(xùn)sy盡st漁em碑h奏as塑b膝ee綁n呀us稻ed困o許n聲th錯(cuò)e僅54奔-s邀to倆ry瓦O兼ne隨M劇el闊lo逆n植Ba憂nk穿C撓en按te膝r犬in酬P(guān)偉it村ts筍bu藏rg沉h.倚亦Sy杠st粥em仇s擾in找c榨on魚cr尚et文e.眼W篇hi泊le娛t植al板l諒bu氏il劍di禽ng連s棄co樹ns背tr招uc廳te輝d隨of設(shè)s揉te奏el貧h掘ad羅a砌n范ea坐rl膨y芬st年ar已t,而d布ev方el遵op物me師nt那o谷f覽ta皮ll竊b紀(jì)ui絲ld食in站gs耕o召f鄉(xiāng)re垮in釣fo腐rc養(yǎng)ed妹c它on陶cr蘋et屋e零pr風(fēng)og鎖re椅ss套ed崇a蜜t淡a蜘fa專st惡e轟no殃ug優(yōu)h蘿ra做te戲t室o巴pr叉ov境id范e爸a布co續(xù)mp懲et賴it蝶iv錯(cuò)e嚷ch業(yè)al屋le籠ng鈴e賢to墨s湯tr現(xiàn)uc叼tu身ra成l詢st蹄ee趣l池sy棒st作em杠s腹fo淺r承bo羊th志o分ff伏ic護(hù)e億an攀d鳥ap絹ar默tm目en行t煌bu慰il堤di樸ng腳s.擱Fr宇am稀ed鋤t濾ub畝e.傳A蝴s嘗di資sc勿us話se虎d怕ab蜂ov硬e,所t窗he吐f宰ir遇st鞠f泊ra農(nóng)me缺d霜tu善be同c唐on誼ce巧pt通f灶or匪t天al定l奶bu腥il醒di牌ng創(chuàng)s馳wa疤s智us院ed舟f孔o(hù)r喂t袍he濾4迷3-睬st炒or爪y謀De量Wi峰tt蜘C副he愚st令nu披t偽Ap鞭ar巷tm哨en核t沸Bu壩il扁di掘ng嫌.犁In誘t晚hi陡s辜bu亡il臺(tái)di忍ng墓,蜘ex冒te鑄ri窄or獎(jiǎng)c況ol齡um磨ns勵(lì)w稿e(cuò)r蛛e踐sp掘ac敗ed遣a屠t遲5.番5-諒ft顯(酷1.悉68至-m瞇)宇ce脅nt域er暮s,麻a止nd素i盒nt段er絡(luò)io柱r紀(jì)co弊lu窮mn角s狂we辦re取u賽se掠d飾as樂n匯ee嚴(yán)de臭d灶to篩s蓮up富po幅rt建t采he理8欲-i暴n.雁-t晝hi疑ck純(劉20益-c設(shè)m)新f悲la烈t-俗pl化at孕e券co狹nc言re喪te必s御la艱bs光.符Tu射be圓i球n眾tu思be歸.翼An匙o(hù)t配he弦r夾sy向st逆em材i臟n枯re鏟in賽fo抽rc要ed翁c航on座cr認(rèn)et途e躍fo四r欣of階fi密ce壤b薯ui嶄ld肌in社gs嚼c愈om莊bi塌ne撐s怒th渣e欄tr交ad怠it照io淡na如l隨sh睛ea勵(lì)r刷wa豪ll瞎c傻on酷st哭r(nóng)u栽ct轟io茄n五wi祝th渾a氏n喚ex檢te片ri島or駛f股ra披me橫d敗tu別be宗.哀Th語e來sy般st醒em化c奴on鍛si庸st帽s曉of被a慣n掙ou脫te貧r抓fr朽am孝ed奸t薪ub到e大of話v羊er緞y硬cl驢os掉el錢y仆sp元ac眠ed啄c莖ol料um穗ns惑a星nd孩a把n庭in舅te方ri天or嗓r愈ig幻id漸s本he竭ar鞭w股al魂l鞏tu騙be軍e芬nc潑lo某si烈ng槍t拴he健c塘en臭tr神al站s胞er盼vi標(biāo)ce網(wǎng)a扛re賄a.丹T甩he婦s導(dǎo)ys料te頓m譯(F金ig煙.2共),嚴(yán)k煤no瓶wn蟲a軟s裕th式e括tu滴be較-i伍n-飯tu稱be嘆s員ys冤te映m,湯m拴ad京e陽it伙p愈os止si嚼bl盼e萍to駁d展es肯ig斤n慘th積e引wo蛇rl討d宏’王s羨pr飄es碎en浩t現(xiàn)ta個(gè)ll效es公t匪(7解14劍f拔t趣or刺2在18住m米)漆li大gh熔tw舟ei劉gh最t霜co匆nc我re罷te踐b抵ui妄ld辨in禍g蹈(t詳he炸5熱2-燙st斧or市y痰On劈e自Sh浙el鋼l識(shí)Pl超az圓a烘Bu既il精di連ng職i獻(xiàn)n床Ho赴us固to炸n)養(yǎng)f岡or誠t慎he犧u擾ni均t舍pr喉ic另e眉o(jì)f糠a排t防ra承di途ti感on貢al鈴s津he勢(shì)ar獅w壓al屑l勝st沿ru染ct鄭ur鳴e怠of石o薄nl瘋y何35搞s鋤to臉ri婚es污.去Sy拘st愁em診s貓co友mb捉in益in今g微bo省th貞c炎o(hù)n糟cr達(dá)et術(shù)e勞an傅d長(zhǎng)st熊ee課l伍ha刷ve漂a柿ls鳥o航be垃en吵d粘ev碧el洋op勇ed氏,胡an婚e燭xa雜mp不le狗o妹f強(qiáng)wh吼ic給h按is探t徹he誘c吐om孤po吐si燙te驚s恨ys澇te聞m田de派ve點(diǎn)lo隨pe建d三by秒S譯ki巷dm酷or闊e,談O渾wi棄ng便s憑&啞Me暫rr哈il押l描in逃w眨hi魄ch攤a乏n垃ex斷te手ri呼or胡c肺lo償se鞭ly片s曲pa祝ce皇d問fr墻am似ed膏t扔ub愿e筆in執(zhí)c轎on覽cr舟et問e也en紀(jì)ve穩(wěn)lo季ps蝕a圾n描in己te體ri喚or墻s悟te蘇el庭f愧ra拾mi輝ng壓,慘th宰er勇eb怎y壤co沿mb黃in盡in胳g朱th凳e對(duì)ad浙va束nt放ag妥es蜂o災(zāi)f糞bo狡th鞏r輝ei智nf頭or覆ce劉d坦co搬nc朽re副te石a絨nd還s圍tr眼uc素tu草ra糧l保st逮ee錘l癥sy模st拜em動(dòng)s.嗚T植he蘆5饒2-固st攻or截y寸On牙e質(zhì)Sh棟el嚴(yán)l川Sq脹ua重re血B捏ui湖ld祖in部g刊in知N駐ew面O摘rl爹ea甩ns約i濕s突ba信se員d毛on奴t爬hi陶s咳sy妹st稿e(cuò)m里.哪出處慶：《乎土木成工程脈專業(yè)蒼英語后》，裳段兵街廷主冰編，沫武漢梁理工走大學(xué)懶出版哭社耐建筑臭物的耽組成譜及高撫層結(jié)虎構(gòu)府材料妙和不教同的糾結(jié)構(gòu)師形式前構(gòu)成閣建筑奴物各下種不手同部柄分，巧包括喊承重抱框架功、外撿殼、崖樓板臉和隔嶼墻。頑在建蝶筑物喚內(nèi)部輔還有妨機(jī)械果和電疫氣系桑統(tǒng)，丘例如點(diǎn)電梯飄、供慘暖和稼冷卻摔系統(tǒng)勵(lì)、照去明系規(guī)統(tǒng)等痰。地猾面以甘上的魯部分黎是建擊筑物仗的上包部結(jié)六構(gòu)，份地面乖以下柴部分寇為建暈筑物營的基豐礎(chǔ)和擊下部寶結(jié)構(gòu)閱。壇摩天選大樓鵲的出遭現(xiàn)應(yīng)抖歸功喘于挪1否9席世紀(jì)株的兩勒大發(fā)貴展：席鋼骨妖架結(jié)祥構(gòu)和色載人灘電梯拼。鋼波材作桃為一姥種建喪筑材告料，求是恐從譯18奏5齒5線年貝平西默量煉鋼栗法被適首次杰介紹屢后開歇始應(yīng)早用的鍵。古胸斯撥塔賀?療艾菲才爾揚(yáng)（捕18省32博~1外92欺3賞）首怒次將曬鋼結(jié)涂構(gòu)引熟入法消國戶。制18才8蜓9肆年的過巴黎與國際亮博覽疼會(huì)的唱塔和何他撤為淺Ga炎le挺ri懂e柳de從s擊費(fèi)機(jī)械弄的設(shè)夜計(jì)表倦現(xiàn)了勵(lì)鋼結(jié)欣構(gòu)的歲靈活珠性。昌艾菲撤爾鐵銀塔很高絮30城0淹米，員是當(dāng)拔時(shí)人皮類建事造的娘最高飼建筑禮物，貼直盲到淡4鍋0緞年后酸才由案美國厭的摩剪天大含樓超匯過其泉高度沾。怨第一顛部電銀梯果是桐18血5競(jìng)7吳年筑El錄is部ha壟O出ti來s朽給紐維約的貨一家悅百貨東公司皺所安粱裝的農(nóng)。掛18壇8源9弓年，雀艾菲惱爾在麥艾菲潮爾鐵辨塔上闖安裝榜了第薯一部欲大型請(qǐng)電梯齡，它林每小痰時(shí)可削以運(yùn)宰送承23帖5罵0賠位乘擊客到顯達(dá)塔武頂。止承重究框架喪。直像到果1蛾9判世紀(jì)吹后期襲，建增筑物舉的外藥墻被蒙用做魯承重啞墻來乎支撐闊樓層想，這稼種結(jié)俊構(gòu)是買本質(zhì)請(qǐng)上是配一種咬梁柱松模型紐，它財(cái)還被寄用在兄框架堵結(jié)構(gòu)噸房屋宅中。史因?yàn)闋€所需邪墻體總的厚胞度很盲大，咳承重談墻結(jié)歌構(gòu)限扭制了圍建筑明物的橡高度倡；例詠如，的建洽于道1晉9妖世劑紀(jì)嘗8售0危年代循的芝嫂加泛哥愧1誦6羽層高啞的撕Mo妨na選dn軋oc坊k戲B億ui鍛ld瀉in合g典，在器較低賺的樓游層墻泥體厚苗度已徐達(dá)則到喘1.暴5綁米航。險(xiǎn)18掩8伏3慣年臥，津Wi駐ll短ia涉n歷Le解B吃ar電on超J間en呆ne貿(mào)y齊（拜18昏32弄~1鵲90歸7胳）用盼鑄鐵急柱來典支撐辛樓層樂的方怎式以恐形成用籠狀倦結(jié)構(gòu)不。平在斯18押8廊9所年，侮框架武結(jié)構(gòu)借首次不由鋼玻梁和罷鋼柱府構(gòu)成到。由博于骨秧架結(jié)售構(gòu)，競(jìng)圍墻往變成風(fēng)了一產(chǎn)種浩“爹幕柄墻虹”貼。磚停石一見直滲是孤“理幕牽墻順”冠的主組要材津料，煎直艘到遷2怠0舉世趕紀(jì)蓬3賤0染年代必輕金囑屬和楊玻璃夜幕墻友的問帝世為傘止。仍自從套鋼框后架首柳次推秤出，劇建筑判物的愈高度漫一直升在迅籌速增胃加。楚在第糾二次壺世界藥大戰(zhàn)搞前，積所有帖的高扒層建剖筑都牌是鋼題結(jié)構(gòu)即。戰(zhàn)口爭(zhēng)結(jié)橡束以省后，抱鋼材渴的缺付乏和滲混凝玩土質(zhì)摧量的需改進(jìn)續(xù)，促柔進(jìn)了頸鋼筋姿混凝偶土高勵(lì)層建鍛筑的揀發(fā)展痕。芝眾加哥雹的克Ma幼ri產(chǎn)na丙T危ow等er輔s萄（頃19鼻6賠2密）是孕美國亡最高胳的混診凝土當(dāng)建筑挪；它蝴的高僑度背是渴58辯8譯英尺燭即頌17諒9環(huán)米，斗不久怪以后趕被倫倍敦的略高憐達(dá)鄉(xiāng)65真0趨英尺背即閑19公8鞏米的棋郵政液大廈溪和其孔它的麥塔所肥超越安。侵在關(guān)掠于摩佩天大穿樓構(gòu)痰造觀接點(diǎn)的麗改變芬恢復(fù)淹了承吩重墻勇的使險(xiǎn)用。據(jù)在紐算約，岸由麗Ee歲ro忙S灑aa掙ri腹ne芽n片于塵19柄6拿2蛇年設(shè)地計(jì)的君哥倫剖比亞戀廣播藍(lán)公司泳大樓宰，樸由鞋1.盲5貢米寬風(fēng)，柱痛與柱鑄的中并心間呢距故為勁3糠米的太混凝舍土柱梳組成淚的環(huán)糞形墻糾。這在種圍寬護(hù)墻戴有效腦地構(gòu)漿成了握建筑隱物的凳承重餃墻。仆這種潑趨勢(shì)穴發(fā)展睜的原賴因是穿建筑笨物的勁墻作丑為一旅個(gè)筒辯體可附以非諸常經(jīng)討濟(jì)的照獲得蒜抗風(fēng)能作用榜的足抄夠強(qiáng)起度；志世貿(mào)后大樓患是另婆一個(gè)杰筒體斜法的醉例子征。相春比之山下，仍剛性異框架味或者適垂直撇的桁孔架通孝常用臣于提聲供側(cè)紀(jì)向穩(wěn)緊定性唉。狼外殼久。一匠個(gè)建沉筑的祝外殼碧由透惰明元掘素（撤窗戶喇）和少不透匯明元乓素（毛墻）華組成銜。窗沸戶采丑用傳廢統(tǒng)上倡的玻祥璃作煙為材掉料，毛盡管憂塑料鳥正在薄被使飾用，歐特別尿在學(xué)處校，扯破損貴產(chǎn)生牙了一魚個(gè)維蛾護(hù)問端題。鉛用來溉覆蓋備結(jié)構(gòu)叉和起沃支撐釘作用暫墻，芝它是箱由各瞇種的兵建筑異材料載組成斜：磚果、預(yù)越制構(gòu)摔件、麻石頭夫、不像透明本的?；土?、乳塑料改、鋼攤材和贈(zèng)鋁材觀。木索頭是份過去打建造楚房屋識(shí)的主典要材窮料；匠因?yàn)樾运紫蛑鹣矗蜷l而不屑常用鹽于商訊業(yè)的忙、工哈業(yè)的條和公吩共建拍筑。茅樓板蠢。一脂幢建認(rèn)筑的撓樓地裁面結(jié)區(qū)構(gòu)取鐮決于所它所解使用壯的基吹本結(jié)典構(gòu)框貴架。充在鋼舒框架本建筑呀中，植樓地補(bǔ)面或過者是桑鋼梁甩上的跡混凝緞土樓戶板，紀(jì)或者繩是由含波紋北鋼配厭有混籃凝土末骨料棗組成死的凹考板。盆在混描凝土熔結(jié)構(gòu)進(jìn)中，錫樓板輩或者塔是混志凝土性梁上彈的混釘凝土蛋樓板績(jī)或者儉是一煉系列尼緊密敲分布暮于混隔凝土是梁在寺方向達(dá)上端商的薄征混凝糖土樓靜板，棵在它同的下對(duì)面提配供了千一個(gè)積多余束的空蜜寂間拍。這眠種類暢型的犁板取扶決于贊支撐嗎柱之壩間的浮距離樣或者貫墻間污的跨展度和六空間志的功吵能性素。在左一棟題公寓版大樓玉中，闊例如冷，墻啟和柱蜻間距儀在超3.暮7封米扔到廁5.基5縮米，細(xì)最常除見的寇結(jié)構(gòu)固是無保梁實(shí)螺心混喘凝土屬樓蓋羊。樓膝蓋的女下表弱面可灘以作于為下除層空書間的姻天花涌板。些辦公改大樓次中常版使用愚波紋些鋼地籠板，拒這是收因?yàn)槠喜y攀鋼地放板的倡波紋唉當(dāng)由訓(xùn)另一仗塊金屑屬板峰蓋上汪時(shí)，帽可以塊形成刷電話秀線和院電線珍管道虛。竄機(jī)械炊和電獵力系鹿統(tǒng)。甩一個(gè)腿現(xiàn)代恰建筑構(gòu)不僅臂包括濤必要蓬使用?？臻g圍（辦呆公室助，教疑室，愧公寓柏）而再且也韻包括舞機(jī)械庸、電瘦力系舊統(tǒng)等蹲的輔勸助空博間，第以便止?fàn)I造醒一個(gè)勺舒適些的生近活環(huán)戀境。班這些聾輔助漫空間改可能緩占摩故天大幸樓總滲建筑尾面積證的語25麻%島。在花一個(gè)耽辦公鑄大樓酷中，席供暖獻(xiàn)、通總風(fēng)、陵電力河和衛(wèi)半生設(shè)調(diào)備系午統(tǒng)的慧預(yù)算歐額占酬實(shí)際另建筑宏總預(yù)慧算額沫的啞40疫%嘗，顯番示了鹿它們彈在建令筑中覆的重刷要性緊。因師為許見多建淡筑是比密封小的，圣窗戶真不能動(dòng)被打佛開，題因而敢由機(jī)著械系丟統(tǒng)提午供了帝通風(fēng)陷設(shè)備巴和空騾氣調(diào)擠節(jié)設(shè)悼備。妻新鮮趙空氣茂從中宋央換替氣室這由空雨氣調(diào)傷節(jié)器鍬用管闖道輸夏入。倚通風(fēng)坐管和就控制拴照明艦設(shè)備賣單元樂由懸躲掛在輝上面筆樓層終結(jié)構(gòu)癢下面系的天檢花板殲遮住蜓了。策提供壁動(dòng)力寬的電慢力線掏路和特電話蘿通訊孤線路核也可賓能在付天花朽板里意或者疊也可收能在險(xiǎn)樓地籍面結(jié)蘇構(gòu)層荒中的雕管道暴或?qū)鹁€管很里。飛我們望曾嘗遞試性瘋地把撐機(jī)械銜、電猶力系匙統(tǒng)加栽入建禮筑物餃的建陜筑學(xué)宋中去飼。例工如在瓦愛荷逼華州金首府伐的美解國共曾和保倍險(xiǎn)公狼司大毀樓，新管道潔和樓轉(zhuǎn)地面何的結(jié)摩構(gòu)層跟有組慶織的檢、優(yōu)激美的固懸掛牲在天養(yǎng)花板肥上。拍這類柄型的山方法厚使得忽建筑抵物的組花費(fèi)禽盡可泰能的咐減少殃了并望且使拒結(jié)構(gòu)相有了禁創(chuàng)新揪，例撕如在途結(jié)構(gòu)勉間距位方面氣。干土地略和地垮基。闊所有驅(qū)的建踏筑物品都是俗靠土方層支犯撐在壓地面糕上的匠，因礙而土剪的特涌性成瘡為建炕筑設(shè)捏計(jì)時(shí)欣極其委重要歉的考濕慮因爪素。醋基礎(chǔ)商的設(shè)杯計(jì)取煩決于頑土的炮許多技因素釘，例砍如土馬的類市型，況土分故層的垃情況燈，土鐵層的惑厚度睜和它工的密帆實(shí)度童，以弟及地示下水屑的情羽況等幕。土道層很揭少有襖一個(gè)爭(zhēng)單一玩的成蘭分；瞧他們痰通常先是厚種度變艷化的余混合纖狀態(tài)計(jì)土層男。據(jù)靠評(píng)定余，土防層的恒等級(jí)騾是根亭據(jù)土叔分子負(fù)的大母小來娃劃分授，從升小到懲大依漂次是討淤泥桿、粘濫土、蔑沙、搜石子校、巖柿石。址通常猛，較孝大分效子的護(hù)土支燕撐的通荷載固要大彩。最畫堅(jiān)硬脅的巖仆石能慰夠支搭撐的狗荷載評(píng)大約捉是每母平方膠米宜10嚴(yán)0頸噸，辟而最濁軟的清淤泥遠(yuǎn)僅能賴夠支善撐的攝荷載快大約錢是每烈平方冊(cè)米抓0.領(lǐng)2悄5秋噸。民所有雙地表因以下越的土炒都處跟于受樹壓狀折態(tài)，棒說得友更精幅確些旗，這由些土講承受聞與作敗用在掉其上預(yù)的土賽柱重脅量相銅等的惕壓力判。許式多土趙顯示騎出彈恩性的蛛性賊質(zhì)禽—霸—栽在荷坡載作欣用下綢受壓離變形爆，當(dāng)鳥荷載群解除雪后可初以回園彈。種土的香彈性繳常隨免時(shí)間秩而改痰變，淚更精奸確地愿說，赤土層補(bǔ)的變藏形在睛恒載歇作用雀下隨光著時(shí)碑間的純?cè)鲩L(zhǎng)挨而不謎斷地歪改變迎。過聞一段惑時(shí)間弄后，桶如果兄加于膀土層耗上的哭荷載醬大于豆土自憑然壓株緊狀艙態(tài)下霞的重住量，純則建節(jié)筑物充會(huì)產(chǎn)架生沉扔降。外相反帝，則味會(huì)產(chǎn)活生隆滅起，絮建筑趕物的繞重量雀可能跑會(huì)使歉土產(chǎn)誼生流善動(dòng)；式也就螞是說噸，經(jīng)莫常會(huì)掀發(fā)生滅土被僵擠出坐。會(huì)由于持土受撇壓和捎流動(dòng)帽的影劃響，飾使建鄭筑物奶發(fā)生持沉降祥。不爺均勻醋沉降黎例如主比薩滾斜塔柳，損句壞的滔結(jié)果鉤是建英筑物斯發(fā)生滑傾斜北，墻啦和隔頃墻可細(xì)能出哥現(xiàn)裂旗縫，禍窗戶斷和門私可能臣產(chǎn)生軍變形衣，或遠(yuǎn)者甚慈至建蝶筑可貧能倒報(bào)塌?；鶆蚴俺两岛喜粫?huì)蒼如此泡嚴(yán)重堪，盡危管可旁能出無現(xiàn)危前險(xiǎn)狀需況，左例如行墨西螺哥城棒的一頃些建烘筑，銳出現(xiàn)炸各種興各樣販的后扮果，強(qiáng)在過序去的被一年北里，旗地下地水位啊發(fā)生圾了改始變，往致使合一些扒建筑畏下沉皮了老3咬米多愁。因束為類洋似的喇狀況銷可能葵發(fā)生內(nèi)在建泊造時(shí)莖也可打能是現(xiàn)建造棍后，直因此幸小心板處理娃建筑究物下局的土柔層是宋極其嶄重要證的。嚷土層全巨大賺的變應(yīng)化使酸得解連決地心基問聞?lì)}的犬辦法抽多樣慈化。虜如果撤表面茂土層暮下的左土為蝕堅(jiān)硬答土層計(jì)，最沈簡(jiǎn)單償?shù)霓k從法是枝采用尼混凝朽土基慚礎(chǔ)。襪若是駁軟弱災(zāi)土層堪，加翼大柱膠的面斷積；鉆假如夜這樣似的話匠，整語個(gè)建牢筑就盡可采派用筏競(jìng)板基忌礎(chǔ)。配假設(shè)稻表面否土層均不能必夠支爆撐建侮筑物沈的重抱量，板木結(jié)奶構(gòu)建飼筑、飽鋼結(jié)范構(gòu)建孔筑、魯或者技混凝貫土建礎(chǔ)筑應(yīng)向建造若在堅(jiān)靜硬土蒜層上唇。念建造辨一幢愧建筑睡物一景般是艱從基巡礎(chǔ)往街上到欣上部精結(jié)構(gòu)鎖。然孕而設(shè)吧計(jì)的拉過程緊是從朋屋頂垃開始赴到基朵礎(chǔ)。顏在過圓去，培地基同處理產(chǎn)不是壯一個(gè)豐系統(tǒng)陽的研氣究項(xiàng)爆目。雁在披2燥0戒世紀(jì)嘆，一宰種科你學(xué)的離地基子設(shè)計(jì)細(xì)方法春已經(jīng)棚發(fā)展賓起來薄了。澡美國共的膏Ka榴rl蒸T聽er趙ag主h稀i曬不斷揪創(chuàng)造打研究公，使呈土力蝦學(xué)和像土地勞勘測(cè)感聯(lián)合翼起來嘩，讓非它盡歌可能遮準(zhǔn)確倉地預(yù)殺測(cè)地污基的嫂活動(dòng)普狀態(tài)陜。過財(cái)去典插型的族地基展破壞癢的例脅子悅—未—吹比薩玉斜塔車現(xiàn)在貴變得邪幾乎圍不存蜘在了私。而告地基緩仍然司是建覽筑物趙中不掏可見巡部分閥費(fèi)用茄最大野的一佳部分惠。改Fa全zl雨