電池儲(chǔ)能高效整合可再生能源

Battery

Storage

to

E?ciently

AchieveRenewable

Energy

IntegrationJanuary

2023About

RenewableEnergyInstituteRenewable

Energy

Institute

is

a

non-profit

tank

which

aims

to

build

a

sustainable,

rich

societybased

on

renewable

energy.

It

was

established

in

August

2011,

in

the

aftermath

of

theFukushima

Daiichi

Nuclear

Power

Plant

accident,

by

its

founder

Mr.

Masayoshi

Son,

Chairman&CEO

of

SoftBankGroup,

withhisown

resources.AuthorRomain

Zissler,

Senior

Researcher,

RenewableEnergyInstituteEditorMasaya

Ishida,

Senior

Manager,

Business

Alliance,RenewableEnergyInstitute.AcknowledgementsThe

author

would

like

to

thank

BloombergNEF,

the

global

authority

on

economic

data

onenergy

investments,

who

allowed

Renewable

Energy

Institute

to

make

use

ofBloombergNEF’sdata

insome

key

illustrations

ofthis

report.Suggested

Citation:

Renewable

Energy

Institute,

Battery

Storage

to

Efficiently

AchieveRenewable

EnergyIntegration

(Tokyo:

REI,2023),

58

pp.Copyright

?2023

Renewable

EnergyInstitute/en/DisclaimerAlthough

we

have

taken

all

possible

measures

to

ensure

the

accuracy

of

the

informationcontained

in

this

report,

Renewable

Energy

Institute

shall

not

be

liable

for

any

damage

causedto

usersby

the

useofthe

information

containedherein.Table

ofContentsIntroduction

4Chapter1:

Roleof

Battery

Storagein

a

SolarandWindPowerFuture

61)

FuturePower

Systems–

Key

Contributionfrom

Batteries

62)

The

Four

Major

ApplicationsofBatteries

133)

SevenIllustrative

Battery

Projects

17Chapter2:

Deployment

Accelerates

withEconomic

Competitiveness

231)

2021RecordGrowthand

LeadingMarkets

232)DramaticCost

Reductionand

Competitivenessin

the

PowerSector

26Chapter3:

TechnologicalProgressandImprovementstoCome

341)

Short-DurationLithium-IonOverwhelmingDomination

342)Long-DurationEnergyStorageLagging

36Chapter4:

Supporting

Policies

401)

Seven

Powerful

PossibilitiestoFurther

AccelerateGrowth

402)

Target

403)

Mandate

414)

Investment

Tax

Credit

425)

Auction

436)

MarketDesign

447)

RECertificate

Multiplier

448)

Time-of-use

discountedrate

45Chapter5:

Concentrationsof

CriticalMinerals&Manufacturing

CapacityandSolutions

471)

ProblematicConcentrationsofCritical

Minerals&ManufacturingCapacity

472)

SolutionsfromEurope,theUnited

States

andJapan

49Conclusion

561ListofChartsChart1:LCOE

byGeneratingTechnology2010-2021

6Chart2:GrossElectricityGenerationfromNuclear,SolarandWind

2000-2021

7Chart3:REShare

in

ElectricityGeneration2021

Achievementsand2050

Projections

8Chart4:Simple

Illustrationto

Visualize

the

Possible

Functioningofa

100%

RE

PowerSystem

10Chart5:FictionalExample

of

a

100%REPower

System24-hourOperations

11Chart6:FictionalExample

of

a

100%REPower

SystemWeeklyOperations

12Chart7:WorldStationary

EnergyStorage

ProjectsbyApplication2021(%)

14Chart8:CAISOHourlyPowerSystem

OperationsOctober

24,2022

14Chart9:FictionalExample

of

ResidentialCustomer-SitedBattery

+

Solar

PV

15Chart10:FictionalExample

of

Commercial

Customer-SitedBattery

+

SolarPV

16Chart11:The

MobilityHouse

TradingEVBatteries’Flexibilityin

EPEXSpot.

22Chart12:WorldStationaryEnergyStorageCumulative

CapacityPower&Energy

Outputs2010-2021

23Chart13:StationaryEnergyStorageCumulative

CapacitySharebyCountry2021(%)

25Chart14:AveragePack

Price

of

Lithium-IonBatteries2011-2021

27Chart15:LCOE

ofUtility-Scale

Battery(4

hours)andCompetingAlternativesbyCountry2022

H1

..

28Chart16:LCOE

ofUtility-Scale

Batteryand

CompetingAlternativesintoGreaterDetails:UnitedStates,China,Japan,and

UnitedKingdom

2022H1

29Chart17:LCOE

ofUtility-Scale

Battery(4

hours)+

REand

CompetingAlternativesbyCountry

2022H1

30Chart18:LCOE

ofUtility-Scale

Battery+REand

CompetingAlternativesintoGreater

Details:

UnitedStates,China,Japan,and

UnitedKingdom

2022H1

31Chart19:LCOE

ofUtility-Scale

Battery+RE

and

Standalone

Battery

byCountry2022H1

32Chart20:ResidentialBattery

+SolarPVLCOE

VS.HouseholdElectricity

Pricein

California,Japan,andGermany2019-2021

33Chart21:WorldUtility-ScaleStationaryEnergy

StorageProjectsbyTechnology2021(%)

34Chart22:IllustrationofLiquid

Lithium-IonBatteriesand

Solid-State

Lithium-IonBatteries

35Chart23:TypicalDischarge

Durationof

Different

StationaryEnergy

Storage

Technologies

36Chart24:The

BasicPrinciple

ofCAES

37Chart25:StationaryEnergyStorageTargetsSelected

Examples

41Chart26:United

StatesStructureofITC

forStationaryEnergy

StorageProjects2022

42Chart27:GermanyInnovationAuctionsAwardedStorage+SolarProjects2021-2022

43Chart28:UnitedKingdom

IllustrationofDynamic

ContainmentService

Functioning

44Chart29:TwoExamplesofRE

Certificate

Multipliersfor

Storage

+REin

South

KoreaDecember

2020

45Chart30:FictionalIllustrationofToUDiscountedRatefor

BatteryStorageInspiredbySouth

46Chart31:Lithium-IonBatteryComposition

47Chart32:LithiumandCobalt

Productionand

ReservesbyCountry

2021

48Chart33:Lithium-IonBatteryManufacturing

Capacity

byCountry

asof

September

21,2022

(%)

49Chart34:European

Commission’sEnvisioned

BatteriesValueChain

50Chart35:United

StatesBipartisan

Infrastructure

Law

BatteryMaterialsProcessingandBatteryManufacturing&RecyclingSelectedProjects

October

2022

532ListofTablesTable

1:Selected

VisionaryPower

Systems

7Table

2:Solar,Wind

Stationary

Batteries,and

DecarbonizedThermalInstalledCapacity2050

9Table

3:DescriptionoftheMajor

ApplicationsofBatteries

13Table

4:SelectedBatteriesProjects

17Table

5:Ratiobetween

StationaryEnergy

StorageCumulative

Capacity

andSolar+Wind

CumulativeCapacity

in

Selected

Countries2021

26Table

6:Utility-ScaleStandalone

Batteriesand

CompetingAlternatives’KeyFeatures

28Table

7:Lithium-IonBatteriesandSodium-Ion

Batteries’KeyCharacteristics

35Table

8:Selected

Long-DurationEnergy

Storage

TechnologiesSummaryKey

Characteristics

38Table

9:Selected

StationaryEnergyStorageSupportingPolicyExamples

40Table

10:European

Commission’sStrategic

Action

Planon

Batteries

SixObjectives

51Table

11:United

StatesDepartment

ofEnergy’sNationalBlueprint

for

LithiumBatteriesFive

Goals52Table

12:JapanMinistryofEconomy,Tradeand

Industry’sBatteryIndustry

Strategy

Three

Targets54ListofPicturesPicture1:HornsdalePower

ReserveBattery

18Picture2:MossLandingBattery

–

Phase

1

Facility

19Picture3:Minami-HayakitaBattery

20Picture4:Olkiluoto

Battery

21Picture5:Crescent

Dunes

ConcentratedSolarPowerPlant

intheUnited

States,Nevada

39Listof

Abbreviations……………………………57Endnotes…………………………….583IntroductionAs

of

the

beginning

of

2023,

reaching

global

carbon

neutrality

by

mid-century

looks

like

aroughly

30-year

long

marathonthat

should

be

runatthespeedofasprint.Among

goodnewsare

theexplosive

growthsof

solar

and

wind

power.

However,

the

outputsof

these

two

technologies

fluctuate

depending

on

weather

conditions.

It

is

then

understoodthat

additional

clean

energy

technologies

should

also

be

rapidly

developed

to

ensure

thecontinuousquality

ofpowersupply.Renewable

Energy

Institute

recognizes

five

sustainable

and

complementary

technologicalsolutions

to

enhance

power

system

flexibility

enabling

the

smooth

integration

of

solar

andwind

power:

electrical

grid

interconnections,

batteries,

decarbonized

thermal

(using

fuelsbased

on

renewable

energy

such

as

green

hydrogen),

demand

response,

and

pumped

storagehydro.Among

these

technologies,

batteries

are

promising

innovative

solutions

expandingparticularly

quickly

which

is

critical

given

the

urgency

to

accelerate

efforts

towards

carbonneutrality.This

report

aims

at

shining

a

light

on

the

great

potential

of

batteries

and

the

challenges

itfaces.

To

achieve

this

objective,

the

report

contains

five

chapters

includingthefollowingkeyfindings:Chapter

1

draws

the

picture

of

a

world

in

which

solar

and

wind

power

will

dominate

the

futureof

electricity

generationthankstotheir

explosivegrowths

based

on

their

unrivaled

economiccompetitiveness

and

technological

simplicity.

Recent

landmark

energy

outlooks

presentingvisionary

power

systems

compatible

with

the

objective

of

carbon

neutrality

are

analyzed.

It

isfoundthat

to

enable

thesmooth

integration

of

highshares

of

solarandwindpower

(70-90%of

totalelectricity

generation)

thekey

contribution

of

battery

storageis

clearly

highlighted.

Itis

also

found

that

among

the

four

major

valuable

applications

of

batteries

energy

shifting

isand

will

remain

particularly

useful.

Seven

concrete

battery

projects,

sources

of

inspiration

andexcitementare

alsoshowcasedto

go

from

theory

toreality.Chapter

2

underlines

the

record

annual

growth

of

stationary

energy

storage

capacityexcluding

pumped

storage

hydro

(i.e.,

primarily

batteries)

in

2021:

nearly

+10

GW,

bringingthe

global

cumulative

capacity

to

more

than

27

GW.

It

is

noted

that

while

the

cumulativecapacity

ofstationaryenergystorage

is

six

times

smaller

than

thatofpumped

storage

hydro(165

GW),

itsannualgrowthpaceis

nowtwicefaster.

The

four

leading

marketsforstationaryenergy

storage

excluding

pumped

storage

hydro

are:

the

United

States,

Europe,

China,

andSouth

Korea

(over

80%

of

global

cumulative

capacity).

A

key

factor

accelerating

stationaryenergy

storage

growth

is

its

economic

competitiveness

resulting

from

the

widespreadadoption

of

electric

vehicles,

enabling

dramatic

cost

reduction

over

the

past

decade

(-86%).It

is

found

that

already

today

for

flexible

peaking

services

at

$0.11-0.22/kWhnew

utility-scalestandalone

batteries

may

outcompete

new

demand

response,

gas

reciprocating

engine,4open-cycle

gas

turbine,

and

pumped

storage

hydro.

It

is

also

found

that

for

dispatchablegeneration,at

$0.10/kWh

orbelownew

utility-scalebattery+solar

photovoltaicand

battery+

onshore

wind

may

outcompete

both

new

and

existing

coal,

combined-cycle

gas

turbine,

andnuclear.

Moreover,

it

is

observed

that

at

the

residential

level

small-scale

battery

+

rooftopsolar

photovoltaic

at

$0.17/kWh

may

outcompete

household

electricity

prices,

as

forexamplesin

theState

ofCalifornia

in

theUnitedStatesor

inGermany.Chapter

3

emphasizes

the

overwhelmingdomination

of

short-duration

lithium-ion

batteries(i.e.,

discharge

duration

of

0.5-6

hours,

typically

4

hours)

among

utility-scale

stationary

energystorage

projects:

96%based

on

power

output

in

2021

(excluding

pumped

storage

hydro).

It

isconsidered

that

to

complement

this

short-duration

energy

storage

solution

and

furtherfacilitate

the

integration

of

solar

and

wind

power,

long-duration

energy

storage

solutions

(i.e.,over

6

hours)

would

certainly

be

beneficial.

Yet,

it

is

found

that

with

the

main

exception

ofpumped

storage,

progress

in

this

area

is

lagging

with

most

technologies

being

costly

andtechnically

unproven

today.Chapter

4

presents

seven

powerful

supporting

policies,

inspired

by

examples

from

all

overthe

world,

to

further

accelerate

the

growth

of

stationary

energy

storage.

Targets

(i.e.,voluntary)

and

mandates

(i.e.,

compulsory)

setting

deployment

objectives

to

be

achieved

inthe

coming

years

and

decades

are

the

first

two

supporting

policies

highlighted.

Investmenttax

credits,

auctions,

market

designs,

RE

certificate

multipliers,

and

time-of-use

discountedrates,fiveenabling

policiesto

fulfilldeploymentobjectives,

arethenunderlined.Chapter

5

stresses

the

geographical

concentration

issues

lithium-ion

batteries

are

currentlyconfronted

with.

It

is

first

found

that

in

2021,

around

75%

of

the

world’s

lithium

and

cobalt(i.e.,

two

key

raw

materials

for

lithium-ion

batteries)

productions

and

reserves

wereconcentratedin

onlythree

countries

Australia,Chile,

and

theDemocraticRepublic

of

Congo,and

that

nearly

80%

of

the

world’s

lithium

battery

manufacturing

capacity

were

concentratedin

a

single

country:

China.

To

cope

with

this

energy

security

problem,

solutions

advanced

inthe

European

Union,

the

United

States,

and

Japan

are

then

presented.

These

solutions

includedeveloping

domestic

extractionof

lithium,

domesticmanufacturingcapacity,

andrecycling.5Chapter

1:

Role

of

Battery

Storage

in

a

Solar

and

Wind

Power

Future1)

Future

PowerSystems–Key

Contributionfrom

BatteriesThanks

to

their

unrivaled

economic

competitiveness

resultingfrom

dramatic

cost

reductions(Chart

1)

and

their

technological

simplicity

–

enabling

fast

deployment

–

solar

and

wind

powerareset

todominate

the

futureofelectricitygeneration.Chart

1:

LCOEby

Generating

Technology

2010-20210.250.2480.200.167Nuclear0.15Coal0.1240.1110.108Gas0.100.0960.0820.05OnshorewindSolarPV0.0600.0380.0360.00Source:

Lazard,LevelizedCostof

Energy

Analysis

–Version15.0

(October

2021).In

2021

already,

the

combined

volume

of

electricity

generated

from

these

two

technologiessurpassed

that

of

well-established

nuclear

power

(i.e.,

the

main

low

carbon

alternative

torenewable

energy

(RE))

–

an

historical

achievement

unthinkable

twenty

years

ago

(Chart

2

onnextpage).6Chart

2:

Gross

Electricity

GenerationfromNuclear,

SolarandWind2000-20213,0002,5002,000SolarWindNuclear1,5001,00050002000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

2018

2020Source:

BP,StatisticalReviewof

WorldEnergy

2022

(June2022).Around

the

world

in

recent

years,

different

types

of

organizations:

intergovernmentalorganizations,

governmental

organizations,

non-governmental

organizations,

power

sectorbusinesses…

advanced

various

landmark

energy

outlooks

presenting

visionary

power

systems.Hereinafter,

four

of

these

recent

energy

outlooks

are

referred

to,

and

in

each

of

them

onecarbonneutralcompatible

scenariohasbeenselected(Table

1).Table1:

SelectedVisionary

PowerSystemsOrganization(Country)TypeoforganizationPublicationyearOutlooktitleSelectedscenario(abbreviation)ObjectiveInternationalEnergyAgency(World)IntergovernmentalGovernmental202220212021WorldEnergyOutlook

2022Net-ZeroEmissions(“NZE”)Carbon

neutralglobal

energysystemby2050United

StatesDepartmentofEnergy(UnitedStates)Renewable

EnergyInstitute(Japan)/AgoraEnergiewende(Germany)/LUTUniversitySolarFuturesStudyDecarbonization

Carbon

neutralwithElectrification(“Decarb+E”)Base

PolicyScenario

–Allimport

(i.e.,power

and

fuelscanbeAmericanpowersectorby

2050Carbon

neutralJapaneseThinktank/thinktank/academicRenewablePathwaystoClimate-NeutralJapan:ReachingZeroEmissionsby2050intheenergysystemby

2050imported)(“BPS-Allimport”)Japanese

EnergySystem(Finland)RéseaudeTransportd'Electricité(France)Transmissionsystemoperator2021Energy

Pathwaysto2050:KeyResultsNuclearpower

Carbon

neutralphaseout(“M0”)Frenchpowersector

by

2050Source:

Selectedandpresentedby

RenewableEnergy

Institute.7The

four

selected

scenarios

commonly

project

very

high

RE

shares:

approximately

90-100%

intotal

electricity

generation

by

2050.

Also,

they

all

unsurprisingly

forecast

solar

and

windpower

tobecome

the

main

generating

technologies:

shares

of

about70-90%

(Chart3).Chart

3:

REShareinElectricity

Generation2021Achievementsand2050

Projections100100971007550250888712173952444552363239Total

REOtherRE282220202518789137118WindSolar14430WorldUnitedStatesJapanFranceNote:OtherREincludesbioenergy,

geothermal,hydro,

andmarine.Sources:

For

2021

achievements;

BP,StatisticalReviewof

WorldEnergy

2022

(June2022).Andfor

2050projections;

InternationalEnergy

Agency,WorldEnergy

Outlook2022

(October

2022),

UnitedStatesDepartmentof

Energy,Solar

Futures

Study

(September

2021),

RenewableEnergy

Institute/AgoraEnergiewende/Lappeenranta-LahtiUniversity

of

Technology

University,RenewablePathways

toClimate-NeutralJapan:

ReachingZeroEmissions

by

2050in

theJapaneseEnergy

System

(March2021),

and

RéseaudeTransportd'Electricité,Energy

Pathways

to2050:Key

Results

(October

2021).To

achieve

these

high

shares

transforming

power

systems

will

be

necessary.

Disruptivetechnologieswill

playakeyrole

to

balance

the

fluctuatingoutputsof

solarandwind

power.In

the

four

scenarios

considered,asetofsolutions

is

implemented

to

maintain

grid

resourceadequacy,

reliability,

and

resilience

in

power

systems

composed

primarily

of

solar

and

windpower.Some

of

these

solutions

are

not

recognized

as

sustainable

by

Renewable

Energy

Institute

(REI).For

examples,

the

International

Energy

Agency

(IEA)

hypothesizes

theuseof

carbon

captureand

storage

(CCS)

for

electricity

generation,

thus

keeping

the

door

open

to

the

continuoususe

of

heavily

polluting

fossil

fuels

–

a

real

risk

if

costly,

immature,

and

inefficient

CCS

neverreally

materializes.

Moreover,

both

the

IEA

and

United

States

Department

of

Energy

(U.S.DoE)’s

scenarios

do

not

phaseout

nuclear

power

which

means

continuous

production

ofdangerous

radioactive

waste.The

other

technologiesassumedto

helpkeeping

power

systemsin

balancearerecognized

assustainable

by

REI

and

include:

electrical

grid

interconnections

(i.e.,

transmission

anddistribution

(T&D)

networks),

batteries,

decarbonized

thermal

(using

fuels

based

on

RE),demand

response,

andpumpedstoragehydro.8All

these

five

technologies

provide

power

system

flexibility

incomplementary

ways.

Electricalgrid

interconnections

enable

to

move

electricity

from

where

it

is

produced,

such

as

RE

richareas,

to

where

it

is

consumed,

like

large

demand

centers.

Demandresponse

provides

a

pricesignal

tocustomers

to

adjust

their

consumptiondepending

on

system

needsforafew

hours.And

batteries,

pumped

storage

hydro,

and

decarbonized

thermal

make

it

possible

to

takeadvantage

of

storage

opportunities

over

different

timeframes.

For

instance,

lithium-ionbatteries

(today’s

overwhelmingly

dominatingtechnologyfor

batteries)for

typically4hours,pumped

storage

hydro

for

5

to

175

hours,

and

decarbonized

thermal

for

seasons

–

which

isverystrategical(see

alsoChapter3).1In

developed

economies,

the

potential

of

pumped

storage

hydro

has

often

already

beenexploited

to

a

large

extent.

Furthermore,

because

of

pumped

storage

hydro

environmentaland

social

constraints

(i.e.,

pumped

storage

hydro

projects

require

two

large

dams

whichimpacts

natural

life

and

local

populations)

prospects

for

its

further

expansion

of

are

oftenlimited.

Therefore,

the

main

growth

areas

for

storage

are

batteries

and

decarbonized

thermal.According

to

the

four

scenarios

studied

in

this

section

both

batteries

and

decarbonizedthermal

will

prove

useful

flexible

resources,

but

most

of

the

growth

is

often

expected

to

comefrombatterieswithastrongincrease

expected

instationary

batteriesparticularly(Table

2).Table2:

Solar,

WindStationary

Batteries,

andDecarbonizedThermalInstalled

Capacity

2050ScenarioSolar

(GW)

Wind

(GW)

Batteries(GW)

Decarbonizedthermal(GW)IEA"NZE"

World15,9051,5687,7959773,8601,676573305U.S.DoE"Decarb+E"UnitedStatesREI/AE/LUTU

"BPS-Allimport"

Japan5241518752RTE

"M0"

France2081362629Sources:

InternationalEnergy

Agency,WorldEnergy

Outlook2022

(October

2022),UnitedStates

Departmentof

Energy,Solar

Futures

Study

(September

2021),

RenewableEnergy

Institute/AgoraEnergiewende/Lappeenranta-LahtiUniversity

of

Technology

University,RenewablePathways

toClimate-NeutralJapan:

ReachingZeroEmissions

by

2050in

theJapaneseEnergy

System

(March2021),

and

RéseaudeTransportd'Electricité,Energy

Pathways

to2050:Key

Results

(October

2021).In

these

four

scenarios,

the

contribution

from

transportation

batteries

(i.e.,

from

electricvehicles

(EVs))

is

also

considered

in

less

detailed

analyses.

It

is

found

that

with

the

massiveelectrification

of

the

transport

sector

additional

storage

capacity

(sometimes

significant)could

be

available.

However,

the

output

of

transportation

batteries

available

for

the

powersector

appears

to

be

smalleror

much

smaller

(depending

onstudies)

than

that

ofstationarybatteries.The

keyreason

toexplain

thatis

the

factthat

stationarybatteries’main

purpose

isto

provide

storage

services,

whereas

transportation

batteries’

main

purpose

is

to

providemobility

services.

Moreover,

the

U.S.

DoE

points

out

that:

“[…]

with

existing

batterytechnologies,

the

costs

of

vehicle-to-grid

applications

from

more

rapid

battery

degradationcurrently

outweigh

thebenefits.”

However,

progress

is

taking

place

to

optimize

the

value

oftransportationbatterieslimitingtheiraging.9Asimple

illustrationisprovidedbelow

to

bettervisualize

howa100%

RE

power

system,

suchasthose

envisionedby

REI

and

Réseau

de

Transport

d’Electricité,

couldlook

likeand

function(Chart

4).

In

this

system:

two

types

of

utility-scale

power

plants

would

exist

(RE

generatorsand

storage),

customers

would

have

become

“prosumers”

(i.e.,

both

producing

andconsuming

electricity)

–

taking

advantage

of

demand

response,

small-scale

RE

generators(e.g.,

rooftop

solar

photovoltaic

(PV))

paired

with

small-scale

stationary

energy

storagesystems

(e.g.,

lithium-ion

batteries)

and

transportation

batteries

(i.e.,

from

EVs),

andelectricity

would

flow

across

the

T&D

networks

(sometimes

back

and

forth

between

utility-scale

storage

andprosumers).Chart

4:

SimpleIllustrationtoVisualizethePossibleFunctioning

of

a

100%

REPowerSystemSource:

Createdby

RenewableEnergy

Institute.Into

more

details,utility-scale

RE

generators

(largelysolar

and

wind)would

on

the

onehanddirectly

supply

electricity

to

prosumers

who

could

either

consume

or

store

it

(1),

on

the

otherhand

charge

utility-scale

storage

(mainly

lithium-ion

batteries)

(2).

Utility-scale

storage

wouldindirectly

supply

electricity

to

prosumers

by

discharging

stored

electricity

generated

by

utility-scale

RE

generators

and

prosumers

(3).

Prosumers

would

not

only

consume

electricity

fromutility-scale

power

plants

and

from

theirown

small-scale

RE

generators,

but

they

would

alsobe

able

to

adjust

their

demand

depending

on

the

power

system

needs,

contribute

tochargingutility-scale

storage

and

meeting

other

prosumers’

demand

by

supplying

excess

electricityfromtheirsmall-scaleREgeneratorsand/ordischargingtheirsmall-scalestationary

batteriesas

wellastheir

transportationbatteries(4).To

illustrate

how

this

combination

of

complementary

solutions

could

work,

a

fictionalexample

of

a

100%RE

power

system’s24-hour

operationsisprovided

(Chart

5

on

next

page).In

this

powersystem,

solarand

windarethe