生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)-demandcurve

生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)--demandcurve第十八章生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)TheMarketfortheFactorsofProduction2生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)

TheMarketsfortheFactorsofProduction2005年美國(guó)居民的總收入是12萬(wàn)億美元，人均4萬(wàn)美元（中國(guó)：18萬(wàn)億人民幣元，人均1.4萬(wàn)元）。In2005,thetotalincomeofallU.S.residentswasabout$12trillion,or$40,000percapita.工人以工資和附加福利的形式賺到的收入占其四分之三（中國(guó)：五分之三）。其余以地租、利潤(rùn)和利息的形式歸土地所有者與資本所有者。Workersearnedaboutthree-fourthsofitintheformofwagesandfringebenefits.Therestwenttolandownersandtotheownersofcapitalintheformofrent,profitandinterest.3生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)

TheMarketsfortheFactorsofProduction為什么有的人的收入比別人高？Whydosomepeoplehavehigherincomesthanothers?是什么決定了多少歸工人，多少歸土地所有者，多少又歸資本所有者？Whatdetermineshowmuchgoestoworkers?Tolandowners?Totheownersofcapital?為什么一些工人（或土地所有者、資本所有者）比另一些掙得更高的工資（或租金收入、利潤(rùn)）？Whydosomeworkersearnhigherwagesthanothers,somelandownershigherrentalincomethanothers,andsomecapitalownersgreaterprofitthanothers?答案取決于供給與需求。Theanswershingeonsupplyanddemand.4生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)

TheMarketsfortheFactorsofProductionFirms企業(yè)Households家庭MarketforFactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)MarketforGoodsandServices產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)市場(chǎng)Spending支出Revenue收益Wages,rent,andprofit工資租金與利潤(rùn)Income收入Goods&Servicessold產(chǎn)品與服務(wù)出售Goods&Servicesbought產(chǎn)品與服務(wù)購(gòu)買Labor,land,andcapital勞動(dòng),土地,資本Inputsforproduction生產(chǎn)投入5生產(chǎn)要素

FactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素是用來(lái)生產(chǎn)商品和服務(wù)的投入。Factorsofproductionaretheinputsusedtoproducegoodsandservices.勞動(dòng)、土地和資本是三種最重要的生產(chǎn)要素。Labor,landandcapitalarethethreemostimportantfactorsofproduction.6生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)

TheMarketfortheFactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素需求是派生需求。Thedemandforafactorofproductionisaderiveddemand.企業(yè)對(duì)于生產(chǎn)要素的需求，是從它在其他市場(chǎng)上供給商品的決策中派生出來(lái)的。Afirm’sdemandforafactorofproductionisderivedfromitsdecisiontosupplyagoodinanothermarket.7勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)

TheMarketsforLabor勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)，跟經(jīng)濟(jì)中的其他市場(chǎng)一樣，是由供給和需求的力量支配的。Labormarkets,likeothermarketsintheeconomy,aregovernedbytheforcesofsupplyanddemand.8“萬(wàn)能的”供給與需求TheVersatilityofSupplyandDemand...(a)蘋果市場(chǎng)TheMarketforApples(b)摘蘋果工市場(chǎng)TheMarketforApplePickers蘋果數(shù)量QuantityofApples摘蘋果工數(shù)量QuantityofApplePickersQLPW00蘋果價(jià)格PriceofApples摘蘋果工工資WageofApplePickers需求Demand需求Demand供給Supply供給Supply9勞動(dòng)需求

TheDemandForLabor大多數(shù)勞動(dòng)的使用，不是作為最終產(chǎn)品供消費(fèi)者享受，而是投入其他物品的生產(chǎn)中。Mostlaborservices,ratherthanbeingfinalgoodsreadytobeenjoyedbyconsumers,areinputsintotheproductionofothergoods.10生產(chǎn)函數(shù)和勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量

TheProductionFunctionandTheMarginalProductofLabor生產(chǎn)函數(shù)描述使用的投入量與產(chǎn)品的產(chǎn)出量之間的關(guān)系。Theproductionfunctionillustratestherelationshipbetweenthequantityofinputsusedandthequantityofoutputofagood.11生產(chǎn)函數(shù)

TheProductionFunction...00501001502002503003500123456摘蘋果工的數(shù)量QuantityofApplePickers蘋果數(shù)量QuantityofApples1234512生產(chǎn)函數(shù)和勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量

TheProductionFunctionandTheMarginalProductofLabor勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量是增加1單位勞動(dòng)所得到的產(chǎn)出量的增加。Themarginalproductoflaboristheincreaseintheamountofoutputfromanadditionalunitoflabor.MPL=

Q/

LMPL=(Q2–Q1)/(L2–L1)13勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量遞減

DiminishingMarginalProductofLabor隨著工人數(shù)量增加，勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量遞減。Asthenumberofworkersincreases,themarginalproductoflabordeclines.隨著工人數(shù)量愈來(lái)愈多，每個(gè)增加的工人對(duì)蘋果產(chǎn)量的貢獻(xiàn)小于前一個(gè)工人。Asmoreandmoreworkersarehired,eachadditionalworkercontributeslesstoproductionthanthepriorone.生產(chǎn)函數(shù)隨著工人數(shù)量的增加變得越來(lái)越平坦。Theproductionfunctionbecomesflatterasthenumberofworkersrises.這一性質(zhì)稱為邊際產(chǎn)量遞減。Thispropertyiscalleddiminishingmarginalproduct.14勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)值

TheValueoftheMarginalProductofLabor邊際產(chǎn)值是投入的邊際產(chǎn)量乘以產(chǎn)出的市場(chǎng)價(jià)格。Thevalueofthemarginalproductisthemarginalproductoftheinputmultipliedbythemarketpriceoftheoutput.VMPL=MPLXP

15勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)值

TheValueoftheMarginalProductofLabor勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)值以美元（或其他貨幣單位）來(lái)衡量。Thevalueofthemarginalproductismeasuredindollars.它隨著工人數(shù)量的增加而減少，因?yàn)楫a(chǎn)品的市場(chǎng)價(jià)格是恒定的。Itdiminishesasthenumberofworkersrisesbecausethemarketpriceofthegoodisconstant.16邊際產(chǎn)值和勞動(dòng)需求

TheValueoftheMarginalProductandtheDemandforLabor給定工人的市場(chǎng)工資，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性的、利潤(rùn)最大化的企業(yè)雇傭工人的數(shù)量要在勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)值等于工資這一點(diǎn)上。Giventhemarketwageforlabors,thecompetitive,profit-maximizingfirmhiresworkersuptothepointwherethevalueofmarginalproductoflaborequalsthewage.VMPL=Wage17競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性企業(yè)如何決定雇傭工人的數(shù)量HowtheCompetitiveFirmDecidesHowMuchLabortoHire勞動(dòng)產(chǎn)出勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)值工資邊際利潤(rùn)18勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)值TheValueoftheMarginalProductofLabor...0QuantityofApplePickers0ValueoftheMarginalProductValueofmarginalproduct(demandcurveforlabor)MarketWage市場(chǎng)工資Profit-maximizingQuantity利潤(rùn)最大化數(shù)量邊際產(chǎn)值邊際產(chǎn)值（勞動(dòng)需求曲線）摘蘋果工數(shù)量19邊際產(chǎn)值和勞動(dòng)需求

TheValueoftheMarginalProductandtheDemandforLabor對(duì)于一個(gè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性的、利潤(rùn)最大化的企業(yè)來(lái)說(shuō)，邊際產(chǎn)值曲線就是勞動(dòng)需求曲線。Thevalue-of-marginal-productcurveisthelabordemandcurveforacompetitive,profit-maximizingfirm.20投入需求和產(chǎn)出供給：同一硬幣的兩面

InputDemandandOutputSupply:

TwoSidesoftheSameCoin一個(gè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性企業(yè)雇傭越來(lái)越多的勞動(dòng)，一直到邊際產(chǎn)值等于工資那一點(diǎn)。此時(shí)，它的產(chǎn)量也就達(dá)到了價(jià)格等于邊際成本的一點(diǎn)。Whenacompetitivefirmhireslaboruptothepointatwhichthevalueofthemarginalproductequalsthewage,italsoproducesuptothepointatwhichthepriceequalsthemarginalcost.VMPL≡P*MPL=W

P=W/MPL≡MC21什么引起勞動(dòng)需求曲線的移動(dòng)WhatCausestheLaborDemandCurvetoShift?產(chǎn)出價(jià)格OutputPrice技術(shù)變革TechnologicalChange其他要素的供給SupplyofOtherfactors22技術(shù)變革如何影響勞動(dòng)需求？

HowTechnologicalChangesAffectLaborDemand?技術(shù)變革通常增加了勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量，從而增加了勞動(dòng)需求。Technologicaladvancetypicallyraisesthemarginalproductoflabor,whichinturnincreasesthedemandforlabor.也有可能技術(shù)進(jìn)步減少了勞動(dòng)需求。Itisalsopossiblefortechnologicalchangetoreducelabordemand.歷史表明，大多數(shù)技術(shù)進(jìn)步是增加勞動(dòng)而不是節(jié)約勞動(dòng)的。Historysuggests,however,thatmosttechnologicalprogressislabor-augmentinginsteadoflabor-saving.23勞動(dòng)供給曲線

TheLaborSupplyCurve勞動(dòng)供給曲線反映工人如何根據(jù)機(jī)會(huì)成本的變動(dòng)，作出勞動(dòng)－閑暇的得失交換的決策。Thelaborsupplycurvereflectshowworkers’decisionsaboutthelabor-leisuretradeoffrespondtochangesinopportunitycost.向上傾斜的勞動(dòng)供給曲線意味著，工資上升使工人增加他們供給的勞動(dòng)量。Anupward-slopinglaborsupplycurvemeansthatanincreaseinthewagesinducesworkerstoincreasethequantityoflabortheysupply.24勞動(dòng)供給曲線

TheLaborSupplyCurve供給Supply工資（勞動(dòng)價(jià)格）Wage(priceoflabor)勞動(dòng)數(shù)量QuantityofLabor025什么引起勞動(dòng)供給曲線移動(dòng)WhatCausestheLaborSupplyCurvetoShift?嗜好變動(dòng)ChangesinTastes可供選擇的機(jī)會(huì)改變ChangesinAlternativeOpportunities移民Immigration26勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)的均衡

EquilibriumintheLaborMarket工資調(diào)整使勞動(dòng)的供求平衡。Thewageadjuststobalancethesupplyanddemandforlabor.工資等于勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)值。Thewageequalsthevalueofthemarginalproductoflabor.27均衡就業(yè)量Equilibriumemployment,L勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)的均衡EquilibriumintheLaborMarket...供給Supply工資（勞動(dòng)價(jià)格）Wage(priceoflabor)勞動(dòng)數(shù)量QuantityofLabor0需求Demand均衡工資Equilibriumwage,W28勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)的均衡

EquilibriumintheLaborMarket勞動(dòng)的供給和需求決定均衡工資。Laborsupplyandlabordemanddeterminetheequilibriumwage.勞動(dòng)供給或需求曲線的移動(dòng)導(dǎo)致均衡工資改變。Shiftsinthesupplyordemandcurveforlaborcausetheequilibriumwagetochange.29勞動(dòng)供給的移動(dòng)AShiftinLaborSupply...Wage(priceoflabor)W10勞動(dòng)數(shù)量QuantityofLaborL1供給Supply,S1

需求Demand2.…降低工資reducesthewage...3.…以及增加了就業(yè)andraisesemployment.1.勞動(dòng)供給增加Anincreaseinlaborsupply...S2W2L2工資（勞動(dòng)價(jià)格）30勞動(dòng)供給的移動(dòng)

AShiftinLaborSupply勞動(dòng)供給的增加Anincreaseinthesupplyoflabor:導(dǎo)致勞動(dòng)過(guò)剩Resultsinasurplusoflabor.對(duì)工資施加向下的壓力Putsdownwardpressureonwages.使得企業(yè)多雇傭工人變得有利可圖Makesitprofitableforfirmstohiremoreworkers.導(dǎo)致勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量下降Resultsindiminishingmarginalproduct.降低了勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)值Lowersthevalueofthemarginalproduct.產(chǎn)生了新的均衡Givesanewequilibrium.31勞動(dòng)需求的移動(dòng)AShiftinLaborDemand...Wage(priceoflabor)W10QuantityofLaborL1供給Supply需求Demand,D12.…提升工資increasesthewage...3.…以及增加了就業(yè)andincreasesemployment.1.勞動(dòng)需求增加Anincreaseinlabordemand...D2W2L2工資（勞動(dòng)價(jià)格）勞動(dòng)數(shù)量32勞動(dòng)需求的移動(dòng)

ShiftsinLaborDemand勞動(dòng)需求的增加Anincreaseinthedemandforlabor:使得企業(yè)多雇傭工人變得有利可圖。Makesitprofitableforfirmstohiremoreworkers.對(duì)工資產(chǎn)生向上的壓力。Putsupwardpressureonwages.提高了邊際產(chǎn)值。Raisesthevalueofthemarginalproduct.產(chǎn)生了新的均衡。Givesanewequilibrium.33生產(chǎn)率與工資

ProductivityandWages生產(chǎn)率可以用勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)值來(lái)（粗略地）衡量。Productivitycanbemeasured

(roughly)bythevalueofmarginalproductoflabor.生產(chǎn)率高的工人，得到的工資也高。Highlyproductiveworkersarehighlypaid.34美國(guó)的生產(chǎn)率與工資的增長(zhǎng)ProductivityandWageGrowthintheUnitedStates時(shí)期生產(chǎn)率增長(zhǎng)率實(shí)際工資增長(zhǎng)率35世界各國(guó)與地區(qū)的生產(chǎn)率與工資增長(zhǎng)ProductivityandWageGrowtharoundtheWorld36其他生產(chǎn)要素：土地和資本

OtherFactorsofProduction:LandandCapital資本指生產(chǎn)中所用的設(shè)備與建筑物存量。Capitalreferstothestockofequipmentandstructuresusedforproduction.經(jīng)濟(jì)中的資本代表現(xiàn)在正用于生產(chǎn)新物品和服務(wù)的、過(guò)去生產(chǎn)的物品的積累。Theeconomy’scapitalrepresentstheaccumulationofgoodsproducedinthepastthatarebeingusedinthepresenttoproducenewgoodsandservices.37土地和資本的價(jià)格

PricesofLandandCapital購(gòu)買價(jià)格是一個(gè)人為了無(wú)限期地?fù)碛心切┥a(chǎn)要素而支付的價(jià)格。Thepurchasepriceiswhatapersonpaystoownafactorofproductionindefinitely.租賃價(jià)格是一個(gè)人為了在一個(gè)有限時(shí)期內(nèi)使用那些生產(chǎn)要素而支付的價(jià)格。Therentalpriceiswhatapersonpaystouseafactorofproductionforalimitedperiodoftime.購(gòu)買價(jià)格與租賃價(jià)格是相關(guān)的：它取決于當(dāng)前以及預(yù)期未來(lái)的租賃價(jià)格。Thepurchasepriceisrelatedtotherentalprices:Itdependsonthecurrentrentalpriceandtherentalpriceexpectedtoprevailinthefuture.38土地和資本市場(chǎng)的均衡EquilibriuminMarketsforLandandCapital土地和資本的租賃價(jià)格是由供給和需求決定的。Therentalpriceoflandandtherentalpriceofcapitalaredeterminedbysupplyanddemand.企業(yè)增加要素使用量，直到要素的邊際產(chǎn)值等于要素價(jià)格。Thefirmincreasesthequantityhireduntilthevalueofthefactor’smarginalproductequalsthefactor’sprice.39土地和資本市場(chǎng)TheMarketsforLandandCapital...土地?cái)?shù)量QuantityofLand資本數(shù)量QuantityofCapitalQQPP00土地的租賃價(jià)格RentalPriceofLand資本的租賃價(jià)格RentalPriceofCapital需求Demand需求Demand供給Supply供給Supply(a)土地市場(chǎng)TheMarketforLand(b)資本市場(chǎng)TheMarketforCapital40土地和資本市場(chǎng)的均衡EquilibriuminMarketsforLandandCapital每個(gè)要素的租賃價(jià)格必須等于他們的邊際產(chǎn)值。Eachfactor’srentalpricemustequalthevalueoftheirmarginalproduct.勞動(dòng)、土地和資本各自賺到了他們對(duì)生產(chǎn)過(guò)程邊際貢獻(xiàn)的價(jià)值。

Labor,land,andcapitaleachearnthevalueoftheirmarginalcontributiontotheproductionprocess.此謂新古典分配理論。Thetheorydevelopedhereiscalledtheneoclassicaltheoryofdistribution.41生產(chǎn)要素之間的聯(lián)系

LinkagesAmongtheFactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素是一起使用的。Factorsofproductionareusedtogether.任何一種要素的邊際產(chǎn)量取決于可以得到的所有要素的數(shù)量。Themarginalproductofanyonefactordependsonthequantitiesofallfactorsthatareavailable.一種生產(chǎn)要素供給的變化會(huì)改變所有要素的收入。Achangeinthesupplyofonefactoralterstheearningsofallthefactors.42生產(chǎn)要素之間的聯(lián)系

LinkagesAmongtheFactorsofProduction任何一種要素收入的變化，都可以通過(guò)分析某一事件對(duì)其邊際產(chǎn)值的影響來(lái)發(fā)現(xiàn)。Achangeinearningsofanyfactorcanbefoundbyanalyzingtheimpactoftheeventonthevalueofthemarginalproductofthatfactor.43黑死病的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)

TheEconomicsoftheBlackDeath14世紀(jì)的歐洲，鼠疫的流行在短短幾年內(nèi)奪去了大約三分之一人口的生命。Infourteenth-centuryEurope,thebubonicplaguewipedoutaboutone-thirdofthepopulationwithinafewyears.這一被稱為黑死病的事件，為檢驗(yàn)我們剛剛提出的要素市場(chǎng)理論提供了一個(gè)可怕的自然實(shí)驗(yàn)。Thisevent,calledtheBlackDeath,provideagrislynaturalexperimenttotestthetheoryoffactormarketsthatwehavejustdeveloped.44黑死病的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)

TheEconomicsoftheBlackDeath勞動(dòng)供給的下降導(dǎo)致勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量增加，這導(dǎo)致工資的上升。Withasmallersupplyofworkers,themarginalproductoflaborrose,whichraisedwages.由于可用于耕種土地的工人少了，土地的邊際產(chǎn)量下降，這導(dǎo)致地租的下降。Withfewerworkersavailabletofarmtheland,themarginalproductoflandfell,whichloweredrents.黑死病給農(nóng)民階級(jí)帶來(lái)了經(jīng)濟(jì)繁榮，而減少了地主階級(jí)的收入。TheBlackDeathledtoeconomicprosperityforthepeasantclassesandreducedincomeforthelandedclasses.45總結(jié)Summary經(jīng)濟(jì)的收入是在生產(chǎn)要素市場(chǎng)上分配的。三種最重要的生產(chǎn)要素是勞動(dòng)、土地和資本。Theeconomy’sincomeisdistributedinthemarketsforthefactorsofproduction.Thethreemostimportantfactorsofproductionarelabor,land,andcapital.要素需求，例如勞動(dòng)需求，是一種派生需求，它產(chǎn)生于用這些要素生產(chǎn)物品與服務(wù)的企業(yè)。