會(huì)計(jì)學(xué)：企業(yè)決策的基礎(chǔ)（管理會(huì)計(jì)分冊(cè)）（原書第19版）課件 -Chap024-Standard Cost Systems

Chapter24StandardCostSystemsIntroduction:UnitedStatesNavyThehistoricalrootsoftheU.S.Armytracebackto1775withtheformationoftencompaniesofinfantrysoldiersarmedwithflintlockpistolsandrifles.Today,theArmy’sinventoryofmunitionsincludesmorethan2,400tanksand2,500helicopters,withbillionsofdollarsprocuredfornewhardwarecurrentlyinproduction.TheamountofmaterialsandsuppliespurchasedbytheArmyinanygivenyearrepresentsasignificantportionofthedefensebudget.TohelptheArmyandotherbranchesofthearmedserviceswiththeprocurementoftanks,aircraft,missiles,communicationsatellites,andothersupportingequipmentandsupplies,theOfficeofManagementandBudgetoperatestheCostAccountingStandardsBoard.Introduction:UnitedStatesNavy(cont.)Thefive-memberCostAccountingStandardsBoard(CASB)isanindependent,legislativelyestablishedboard.Theboardhastheexclusiveauthoritytomake,promulgate,andamendcostaccountingstandardsandinterpretationsdesignedtoachieveuniformityandconsistencyinthecostaccountingpracticesgoverningthemeasurement,assignment,andallocationofcoststocontractswiththeUnitedStates.Thestandardsaremandatoryforusebyallbranchesofthearmedservicesandbycontractorsandsubcontractorsinestimating,accumulating,andreportingcostsinconnectionwithpricing,andallprocurementswiththeUnitedStatesinexcessof$500,000.TheCASBrecommendationsincludetheuseofstandardcostingsystemsforallgovernmentcontractors.StandardCostSystemsAstandardcostistheper-unitcostexpectedtobeincurredundernormal(butefficient)operatingconditions.Standardcostsareestimatedseparatelyforthematerials,directlabor,andoverheadusedineachtypeofproductthatthecompanymanufactures.KEYPOINTComparisonoftheactualcostswiththesecoststandardsquicklydirectsmanagement’sattentiontosituationsinwhichoutcomesdifferfromexpectations.VariancesVariancesrefertodifferencesbetweenactualandstandardcostsorquantities.Avarianceissaidtobefavorablewhenactualcostsorquantitiesarelessthanstandard.Whenactualcostsorquantitiesexceedthestandard,thevarianceissaidtobeunfavorable.AStandardCostSystemwithActualandStandardQuantitiesandCostsEstablishingandRevisingStandardCostsStandardcostsareestablishedandrevisedeachperiodduringthebudgetingprocess.Standardcostsarecontinuallyreviewedandperiodicallyrevisedifsignificantchangesoccurinproductionmethodsorinthepricespaidformaterials,labor,andoverhead.Underidealconditions,managementwouldleavenoroomforanyinefficienciesintheproductionprocess—therewouldbenowaste,spoilage,fatigue,breakdowns,costoverruns,etc.However,idealexpectationsareunrealisticandwouldresultincoststandardsimpossibletoachieve.Hence,management’slevelofexpectationmustbesomethinglessthanideal.YourTurn:ProductionManagerAssumeyousupervisetheproductionlineforaproductcalledWingdits.Overseveralpreviousyears,theaveragedemandforWingditshasrequiredabout80percentofproductioncapacity,butduringthecurrentyeardemandhasrequiredtheproductionlinetoberunat100percentcapacity.Yourproductionlinehasbeendesignatedasaresponsibilitycostcenter,andyouhavetheauthoritytomakeinput-relateddecisionssuchasorderingrawmaterials,hiringemployeestoworkontheproductionline,andmaintainingtheequipmentusedtoproduceWingdits.Duringthecurrentyear,theplantmanagerhasbeenquestioningyourmanagementabilitybecausetheactualcostsofproducingWingditsaresignificantlyhigherthantheexpectedstandardcosts.WhatcouldexplainthesignificantdifferencebetweentheactualandstandardcostsoftherecentlyproducedWingdits?Whatrelatedethicalissuesshouldyouraisewiththeplantmanager?DirectMaterialsStandardsThefirststepinestablishingstandardcostsfordirectmaterialsisidentifyingthespecificmaterialsrequiredtoproduceeachproduct.Thesettingofdirectmaterialsstandardsinvolves:Costofmaterial.Quantityofmaterial.Forexample,assumethatthestandardcostofmozzarellacheeseusedintheproductionoffrozenpizzasis$2.40perpound.Ifthestandardquantityofcheeseallowedperpizzaisone-quarterofapound,thestandardcostofcheeseperpizzais$0.60($2.40perpoundtimes?pound).DirectMaterialStandards:OtherConsiderationsThesettingofdirectmaterialsstandardsalsoinvolvesassessingrelationshipsamongcost,quality,andsellingprices.High-qualitymaterialsgenerallycostmorethanlow-qualitymaterials.However,theuseofhigh-qualitymaterialsoftenresultsin:Lesswaste.Lessspoilage.Fewerproductdefects.DirectMaterialStandards:OtherConsiderations(cont.)Thecostandqualityofmaterialsusedinproductionarekeyfactorsindeterminingsellingprices,which,inturn,significantlyinfluencecustomerdemand.Additionalissuestobeconsideredincludecostsrelatedto:StorageAvailabilityWastedisposalShippingDirectLaborStandardsEstablishingstandardcostsfordirectlaborissimilartotheprocessofestablishingdirectmaterialsstandards.Thesettingofdirectlaborstandardsincludes:Wagerate.Amountoftimeallowedtoproduceeachproduct.Forexample,assumethatthestandardwagerateofaproductionworkerinafurnituremanufacturingcompanyis$15perhour.Ifthestandardnumberofdirectlaborhours(DLH)allowedtoproduceaparticulartableisthreehours,thestandarddirectlaborcostpertableis$45($15perDLHtimes3DLH).DirectLaborStandards(cont.)Thesettingofreasonabledirectlaborstandardsoftenrequiresinputfrom:HumanresourcemanagersIndustrialengineersUnionrepresentativesSupervisorsCostaccountantsFactoryemployeesEstablishingrealisticcoststandardsrequiresinputfrommanydifferentsources—oftenincludingpeoplefromoutsideofthebusinessorganization.CaseinPoint:AutomobileCompaniesSeveralautomobilecompanies—includingGeneralMotors,Toyota,andFord—letmanufacturingworkerstakepartinestablishingtheirownstandards.Thereason?Whenmanagersorindustrialengineerssetstandards,theyoftenareignored,andbothefficiencyandmotivationsuffer.Thesecompanieshavediscoveredthatwhenindividualworkteamsareallowedtosettheirowntargetstandards,andareencouragedtocomparetheiractualperformanceswiththeachievementsofotherteamsonothershifts,efficiencyandmotivationtendtoimprovesignificantly.ManufacturingOverheadStandardsStandardoverheadcostperunitisbasedonanestimateoftotaloverheadatthenormallevelofproduction.Variouscostdriversandactivity-basedcostingareoftenusedindevelopingthestandardoverheadcostperunit.Oncethisstandardhasbeenestablished,however,overheadisappliedtoproductionatthestandardcostperunit.Illustration:StandardCostsandVarianceAnalysisToillustratetheuseofstandardcostsandthecomputationofvariances,wewillexaminetheoperationsofBriceMillsinMoscow,Idaho.Amongthecompany’smajorproductsarelaminatedwoodenbeamsusedintheconstructionindustry.Theproductionprocessinvolvestwosteps.First,2-inchby12-inchboardsofvaryinglengthsarecutfromroughwhitepinelumbersuppliedbywholesalersfromthroughoutthePacificNorthwest.Theseboardsarethengluedtogether,likeasandwich,toformalaminatedbeam.BriceMills:ProductionandMaterialsBricemanufacturesabeamwhichis20feetlongandrequiressixlayersofpineboards.Atnormalcapacity,thecompanyproduces700ofthesebeamseachmonth.DirectMaterialsDuetoinherentdefectsandwasteinmaterials,thecompanyallows264board-feetasthestandardquantityforeach20-footbeammanufactured.Thestandardcostofroughwhitepineis$0.25perboard-foot.Thestandardcostofdirectmaterialsis$66perbeam(264

board-feet×$0.25

perfoot).BriceMills:DirectLaborConvertingroughlumberintoboardssuitableforfinishedbeamsrequiresavarietyofdirectlabortasks.Forinstance,boardsmustbecutandplaned,gluedtogether,pressed,andcoatedwithaprotectivesealant.Bricehasestablishedastandardof1.5directlaborhoursforeachbeamitproduces.Itsstandardlaborrateis$12perhour.Thisresultsinastandarddirectlaborcostof$18perbeam.ManufacturingOverheadCostsManufacturingoverheadincludesbothfixedandvariablecosts.Fixedmanufacturingcostsarethosethatarenotaffectedbyshort-termchangesinthelevelofproduction.Examplesoffixedoverheadcostsinclude:Supervisorsalaries.Depreciationonequipment.Propertytaxesonthefactory.Variablemanufacturingcostsriseandfallinapproximateproportiontochangesinproductionvolume.Examplesofvariableoverheadcostsmayinclude:Machineryrepairs.Electricity.Indirectmaterials.BriceMills:OverheadCostsBricebudgetstotalfixedoverheadrelatingtotheproductionofbeamsat$5,600permonth.Atthenormalproductionlevelof700beamspermonth,thisamountsto$8perbeam($5,600÷700

beams).Inaddition,thecompanyappliesvariablemanufacturingoverheadtobeamsusingdirectlaborhoursasanactivitybase.Itsapplicationrateis$4perdirectlaborhourallowedperbeam.Giventhat1.5directlaborhoursareallowedper20-footbeam,Briceexpectstoincur$6perbeaminvariableoverhead.Thus,thecompany’sstandardcostforoverheadisestimatedat$14perunit.BriceMills:StandardCostPerUnitThefollowingtablesummarizesthestandardcostsBriceexpectstoincurinthemanufactureofits20-footbeams.BriceMills:ActualCostsDuringMarch,Briceexperiencedseveralproductiondelays.Asaresultofthesedelays,only600beamswereproduced(or100fewerthan“normal”monthlyoutput).TherewerenounitsinprocesseitheratthebeginningorattheendofMarch.Totalmanufacturingcostsactuallyincurredtoproduce600beamsduringthemonthwereasfollows.BriceMills:Actualvs.StandardCostsBycomparingtheactualcostsincurredinMarchtothestandardcostsallowedtoactuallyproduce600beams,wecandeterminethetotalcostvarianceforthemonthasfollows.KEYPOINTThe$80totalvariancefromstandarddoesnotprovideenoughdetailedinformationtoadequatelyassessmanufacturingefficiency.Onlybycomparingactualcostsofdirectmaterials,directlabor,andoverheadtotheirrelatedstandardcostscanwebegintounderstandthedynamicsofthenumerousrelevantrelationships.RelationshipsamongMaterialsandLaborVariancesMaterialPriceandQuantityVariancesInestablishingthestandardmaterialscostforeachunitofproduct,twofactorsareconsidered:Thequantityofmaterialsrequired.Thepricesthatshouldbepaidtoacquirethesematerials.Therefore,atotalcostvarianceformaterialscanresultfrom:Differencesinthequantitiesused.Differencesinthepricespaidtosuppliers.Acombinationofthesefactors.BriceMills:MaterialCostVarianceLetuscomputethetotalmaterialsvarianceincurredbyBriceintheproductionof600laminatedbeamsinMarch.Aswehavestated,acostvarianceisthedifferencebetweentheactualcostandthestandardcostoftheunitproduced.Thus,Bricehada$3,600favorablematerialsvarianceforthe600beamsproducedinMarch.BriceMills:MaterialPriceVarianceThefavorablematerialspricevarianceresultedfromthepurchasingagentacquiringlumberfor5centslessthanthestandardcostof$0.25persquarefoot.Theformulaforcomputingthematerialspricevarianceisasfollows.BriceMills:MaterialQuantityVarianceTheunfavorablematerialsquantityvarianceresultedfromtheproductiondepartmentusingmorelumberthanthecoststandardallows.Theproductiondepartmentactuallyused180,000board-feetofpineinproducing600beams.Butthestandardcostallowsonly264board-feetperbeam,or158,400fortheproductionof600beams.Therefore,theproductiondepartmenthasused21,600moreboard-feetoflumberthanthestandardquantityallows.Thecomputationofthematerialsquantityvarianceisasfollows.BriceMills:MaterialVariancesinMarchThefollowingjournalentryismadetorecordthecostofmaterialsusedduringMarchandtherelatedcostvariances.LaborRateandEfficiencyVariancesActuallaborcostsareafunctionof:Thewageratepaidtodirectlaborworkers.Thenumberofdirectlaborhoursworked.A

laborratevarianceshowstheextenttowhichhourlywageratescontributedtodeviationsfromstandardcosts.Thelaborefficiencyvariance

indicatestheextenttowhichthenumberoflaborhoursworkedduringtheperiodcontributedtodeviationsfromstandardcosts.BriceMills:LaborRateVarianceBriceincurredactualdirectlaborcostsof$14,040inMarch.Thestandardlaborcostallowedformanufacturing600beamsisonly$10,800

(600

units×1.5

hoursperunit×$12

perhour).Thus,thecompanyisfacedwithanunfavorablelaborvarianceof$3,240($10,800?$14,040).Timecardsshowthat1,080directlaborhourswereusedinMarch.Theaveragewagerateforthemonthwas$13perhour.Thus,thelaborratevarianceforBriceiscomputedasfollows.BriceMills:LaborEfficiencyVarianceThelaborefficiencyvariance(alsocalledthelaborusagevariance)isameasureofworkerproductivity.Thelaborefficiencyvarianceiscomputedbymultiplyingthestandardhourlywageratebythedifferencebetweenthestandardhoursallowedandactualhoursused.Briceallows900directlaborhourstoproduce600

beams

(600

units×1.5

hoursperunit).Giventhat1,080hourswereactuallyrequired,thecompany’sunfavorablelaborefficiencyvarianceforMarchiscomputedasfollows.InternationalCaseinPointCreatinglow-coststandardsfordirectlabormayinvolveatrade-offbetweenwageratesandassemblytimesallowed.Forexample,manyinternationalhigh-techcompaniessuchasCiscoSystems,Inc.,andHewlett-Packardrelyheavilyuponoffshoreassemblyplantsforlowlaborcosts.YetoffshorelaboroftenislessefficientthanthemoreskilledworkforceavailableintheUnitedStates.Evenso,thelowlaborratesincountriessuchasHungaryandtheCzechRepublicmorethanoffsetlaborinefficiencies,enablingthesecompaniestocompeteinaglobalmarketplace.BriceMills:LaborVariancesinMarchThefollowingjournalentryismadetorecordthecostofdirectlaborchargedtoproductionduringMarch.MaterialOverheadVariancesThedifferencebetweenactualmanufacturingoverheadcostsincurredandthestandardoverheadcostschargedtoproductioniscalledtheoverheadvariance.

Whereasdirectmaterialsanddirectlaborarevariablecosts,manufacturingoverheadiscomprisedofbothvariableandfixedcostcomponents.Therefore,theanalysisoftheoverheadcostvariancedifferssomewhatfromtheanalysisofmaterialsandlaborvariances.Wewillnowexaminetwoelementsoftheoverheadcostvariance:SpendingvarianceVolumevarianceBriceMills:OverheadSpendingVarianceThemostimportantelementoftheoverheadcostvarianceisthespendingvariance.Thisvarianceisthedifferencebetweenthestandardoverheadallowedforagivenlevelofoutputandtheactualoverheadcostincurredduringtheperiod.TheoverheadspendingvarianceforBriceMillsinMarchiscomputedasfollows.BriceMills:OverheadVolumeVarianceThevolumevariancerepresentsthedifferencebetweentheoverheadappliedtoworkinprocess(atstandardcost)andtheoverheadexpectedattheactuallevelofproduction.Wewillseethatthevolumevarianceiscausedsimplybythedifferencebetweenthenormalvolumeofoutput(700unitspermonth)andtheactualvolumeofoutput(600unitsinMarch).VolumeVariancesVolumevariancesoccurautomaticallywheneveractualoutputdiffersfromthelevelofoutputassumedincomputingthestandardoverheadcostperunit.Overtime,averageproductionlevelsshouldequalthenormallevelusedindevelopingthestandardcost.Thus,thefavorableandunfavorablevolumevariancestendtooffseteachother.Volumevariancesdonotindicateeitherefficientorinefficientperformance.Unlessaproductiondepartmentfailstoproduceaspecificnumberofscheduledunits,nomanagershouldbeconsideredresponsibleforavolumevariance.Volumevariancesaresimplythenaturalresultoffluctuationsinthelevelofproductionfrommonthtomonth.BriceMills:SummaryofOverheadCostVariancesThefollowingjournalentryismadetoapplyoverheadcoststoproductionduringMarch.ValuationofFinishedGoodsInastandardcostsystem,costsarechargedtotheWorkinProcessInventoryaccountatstandard.Thus,finishedgoodsalsoarevaluedatstandardastheircostsaretransferredtotheFinishedGoodsInventoryaccountandtotheCostofGoodsSoldaccount.TheentrymadeattheendofMarchtorecordthecompletionof600beamsisasfollows.AccountingforCostVariancesThebalancesinthevarianceaccountsaretypicallyallowedtoaccumulatefrommonthtomonth.Often,thefavorableandtheunfavorablevarianceswillbalanceoutduringtheyear,leavingonlyasmallamountineachvarianceaccountatyear-end.Inthiscase,thevarianceaccountsaresimplyclosedintotheCostofGoodsSoldaccount.However,ifthebalancesinthevarianceaccountsattheendoftheyearrepresentamaterialdollaramount,theamountshouldbeapportionedamongtheWorkinProcessInventory,FinishedGoodsInventory,andCostofGoodsSoldaccounts.EvaluatingCostVariancesfromDifferentPerspectivesEarlyinApril,Brice’scostaccountantpreparedcostvariancesummaryreportsoneachofthecompany’sproductlinesfordistributionatthemonthlystaffmeeting.Amongthoseattendingthemeetingwere:Directorofpurchasing.Productionmanager.Qualitycontrolinspector.Employeegrievancerepresentative.Salesmanager.VarianceSummaryReportPerspective:AccountingThecostaccountantopenedthemeetingbyannouncingthatshehadacombinationof“goodnews”and“badnews.”GoodNewsOnthebrightside,shewasencouragedthatthecompany’stotalmanufacturingcostvariancefor20-footbeamswasfavorableforthefirsttimeinmanymonths(albeitonly$80).Shewasespeciallypleasedaboutthesuccessfulefforttocontrolmanufacturingoverheadcostsassociatedwiththisproduct,asrevealedbythe$520favorableoverheadspendingvariance.Perspective:Accounting(cont.)BadNewsSheimmediatelyexpressedconcernregardingseveralunfavorablevariancesexperiencedacrossthebeamsproductlineduringthemonth.Inparticular,shewastroubledbytheconsistentpatternofunfavorablelaborrate,laborefficiency,andmaterialsquantityvariances.Perspective:PurchasingThefirstpersontorespondtothecostaccountant’scommentswasthepurchasingagent.Takingadefensiveposture,hestressedthatnoneoftheunfavorablevariancesexperiencedduringthemonthwereunderhiscontrol.Infact,hebraggedthatthe$9,000favorablepricevariancefor20-footbeams“savedthecompanyfromfinancialdisasterinMarch.”Hepoundedthetable,exclaimingthathehad“shoppedforprice”inthreedifferentstates,gettingwhathebelievedtobethebestbargainpossibleforroughwhitepinelumber.Perspective:ProductionTheproductionmanagerstoodupandconfrontedthepurchasingagent.Heverballyattackedthepurchasingdepartment,accusingitofacquiringmaterialsof“grosslyinferiorquality.”Hetoldthegroupthatthelumberheandhiscrewhadbeenissuedwasgreenandfullofknots,warps,andcracks.Inhisopinion,thesedefectsweredirectlytoblamefortheunfavorablematerialsusagevarianceassociatedtheproductionof20-footbeamsinMarch.Healsobelievedthatnumerousproductionbottlenecksresultingfrompoor-qualitymaterialshadcausedproductionoutputinMarchtobesignificantlylessthannormal.Perspective:QualityControlThequalitycontrolinspectorconcurredwiththeproductionmanager’sassessment.Shenotedthatmanyofthecompany’sproductlines,especiallyits20-footbeams,eitherfailedtopassinspectionordidsoonlymarginally.Neverinrecenthistoryhadtherebeenamonthinwhichsherejectedsomanybeams.Perspective:FactoryWorkersTheemployeegrievancerepresentativeisamemberoftheproductioncrewelectedtocommunicategrievancestomanagement.Hiscommentsprovidedauniqueperspectivetowhathadbecomeanemotionallyheatedmeeting.HeconveyedtothegroupthatfactorymoraleinMarchhadhitanall-timelow.Headmittedthateverymemberoftheproductioncrewknewproductivitywaswaydown,andaddedthateveryonethoughttheinferiormaterialswerethecauseoftheproblem.Perspective:FactoryWorkers(cont.)Heconcludedbysayingthattheonlygoodthingaboutinferiormaterialsis“theovertimepayweearnworkingextrahours.”The$1,080unfavorablelaborratevarianceforlaminatedbeamsresultedprimarilyfromtheovertimepayrates.Perspective:MarketingThesalesmanagerarguedthat,evenwithovertimeandextrashifts,demandduringMarchstillexceededoutput.Hetoldthecompany’scostaccountantthatthiswasoneofthoseoccasionswhenanunfavorablevolumevariancehadsevereimplications.Healsoworriedthatthebeamsthatweresoldmaynothavebeenofthequalitycustomershadcometoexpect.Hisremarksraisedquestionsregardingthecompany’slegalliabilityshouldabeamfailbecauseofstructuraldefects.YourTurn:PlantManagerYouaretheplantmanagerforBrice.Youhaverecentlyimplementedabonussystemforyouremployeesthatprovidesa10percentbonusforfavorablevariances.Whatarethepotentialbenefits,costs,andethicalconcernsofsuchabonussystem?JITSystemsandVarianceAnalysisAjust-in-time(JIT)approachcombinedwithtotalqualitymanagement(TQM)canreduceoreliminatemanyunfavorablecostvariances.Materialsusagevariancescausedbydefectivematerialsalsomaybeminimized.Shouldabatchofinferiormaterialsbeencountered,theproductionprocessishaltedandthesupplieriscontactedtoresolvetheproblemimmediately.Thus,ratherthandiscoveringqualitycontrolproblemsafterthefact,usingJITandtotalqualitycontrolmakesitpossibletodetectandcorrectqualityproblemsastheyoccur.Ethics,Fraud,&CorporateGovernanceForacompanyusingstandardcostingsystems,theaccuracyoftheinventoryandcostofgoodssoldfiguresreportedinthecompany’sfinancialstatementsisdependentonthereliabilityofthestandardcostnumbers.Acompany’sfinancialstatementscanbemateriallymisstat