cepal -2024 年拉丁美洲和加勒比地區(qū)社會(huì)全景 Social Panorama of Latin America and the Caribbean,2024

Executivesummary

SocialPanoramaofLatinAmericaand

2024

theCaribbean

Thechallengesofnon-contributorysocialprotectioninadvancingtowardsinclusivesocialdevelopment

Accessibleversion

Executivesummary

Accessibleversion

SocialPanorama

ofLatinAmericaand

2024

theCaribbean

Thechallengesofnon-contributory

socialprotectioninadvancingtowards

inclusivesocialdevelopment

JoséManuelSalazar-Xirinachs

ExecutiveSecretary

JavierMedinaVásquez

DeputyExecutiveSecretarya.i.

AlbertoArenasdeMesa

Chief,SocialDevelopmentDivision

RolandoOcampo

Chief,StatisticsDivision

SimoneCecchini

Chief,LatinAmericanandCaribbeanDemographicCentre(CELADE)-PopulationDivisionofECLAC

AnaGüezmesGarcía

Chief,DivisionforGenderAffairs

SallyShaw

Chief,DocumentsandPublicationsDivision

TheSocialPanoramaofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanisapublicationpreparedannuallybytheSocialDevelopmentDivisionoftheEconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC),ledbyAlbertoArenasdeMesa,andbytheECLACStatisticsDivision,ledbyRolandoOcampo,withthecollaborationoftheLatinAmericanandCaribbeanDemographicCentre(CELADE)-PopulationDivisionofECLAC,headedbySimoneCecchini,andtheDivisionforGenderAffairsofECLAC,headedbyAnaGüezmesGarcía.

Thepreparationofthe2024editionwascoordinatedbyAlbertoArenasdeMesawiththesupportofDanielaTrucco,whoworkedonthedraftingtogetherwithMurielAbad,Carmenálvarez,AmparoBravo,VerónicaCano,HelenaCruzCastanheira,ErnestoEspíndola,ConsueloFarías,NincenFigueroa,álvaroFuentes,KarenGarcía,DanielaGonzález,RaúlHolz,IsabelJacas,CarlosMaldonado,XavierMancero,MaríaLuisaMarinho,RodrigoMartínez,AmaliaPalma,ClaudiaRobles,JorgeRodríguez,RaquelSantosGarcia,LucíaScuro,ZulmaSosa,JuanVila,PabloVillatoroandBelénVillegas.MarioAcu?a,LeninAguinaga,CatalinaAlviz,JorgeCadenasso,EdmundoCaillaux,

MiguelCastillo,EunseoCho,MaríaPazCollinao,ErnestoEspíndola,FabiolaFernández,NincenFigueroa,álvaroFuentes,NicolásHernández,RocíoMiranda,JavieraRavestandPabloVillatoroworkedonthedatacollectionandstatisticalprocessing.ValuablecontributionsandcommentsrelatingtodifferentsectionsofthedocumentwerereceivedfromSimoneCecchini,DiegoCollado,JennieDador,FabianaDelPopolo,AndrésEspejo,CamilaGramkow,AnaGüezmesGarcía,SandraHuenchuán,MarianaHuepe,DanielaHuneeus,ángelaPenagos,HumbertoSoto,SoledadVillafa?eandIsabelWalker.

TheUnitedNationsandthecountriesitrepresentsassumenoresponsibilityforthecontentoflinkstoexternalsitesinthispublication.

UnitedNationspublicationsLC/A.2024/5

LC/PUB.2024/24Distribution:G

Copyright?UnitedNations,2025Allrightsreserved

PrintedatUnitedNations,SantiagoS.2401162[E]

Explanatorynotes:

?Threedotsindicatethatdataarenotavailableorarenotseparatelyreported.

?Adashindicatesthattheamountisnilornegligible.

?Afullstopisusedtoindicatedecimals.

?Theword“dollars”referstoUnitedStatesdollars,unlessotherwisespecified.

?Aslashbetweenyears(e.g.2023/2024)indicatesa12-monthperiodfallingbetweenthetwoyears.

?Individualfiguresandpercentagesintablesmaynotalwaysadduptothecorrespondingtotalbecauseofrounding.

Thispublicationshouldbecitedas:EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC),

SocialPanoramaofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,2024.Accessibleversion(LC/A.2024/5-LC/PUB.2024/24),Santiago,2025.

EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC)

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4

ApplicationsforauthorizationtoreproducethisworkinwholeorinpartshouldbesenttotheEconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC),DocumentsandPublicationsDivision,publicaciones.cepal@.MemberStatesoftheUnitedNationsandtheirgovernmentalinstitutionsmayreproducethisworkwithoutpriorauthorization,butarerequestedtomentionthesourceandtoinformECLACofsuchreproduction.

Contents

A.Socialprotection,especiallyitsnon-contributorycomponent,isessential

foradvancingtowardsinclusivesocialdevelopment 7

B.TowardstheSecondWorldSummitforSocialDevelopment:socialprotection

attheheartofinclusivesocialdevelopmentstrategies 11

C.Thehigh-inequalitytrapandhighlevelsofpoverty:challenges

fornon-contributorysocialprotection 13

D.In2023,povertyfelltoitslowestlevelsince1990,butincomeinequality

remainshigh 18

E.Investinginchildren:acriticalaspectofnon-contributorysocialprotection 23

F.Non-contributorypensionsystems:akeyelementintheeffort

toeradicateold-agepoverty 25

G.Thecarecrisisperpetuatesgenderinequalityandcallsforstronger

socialprotection 27

H.Thetechnical,operational,politicalandprospective(TOPP)capabilitiesof

institutionsarealsokeystrengtheningnon-contributorysocialprotection 33

I.Socialspendingstoppeddecliningandstabilized,butnon-contributory

socialprotectionspendingremainsinsufficient 35

EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC)

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J.Settingastandardforinvestmentinnon-contributorysocialprotection

iskeyforprogressonpovertyeradication 38

K.Thepressingneedtostrengthenintersectoralactionforprogresstowards

universal,comprehensive,sustainableandresilientsocialprotection 39

L.Presentationandsummaryofthekeymessagesofthechapters 43

Bibliography 45

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A.Socialprotection,especiallyitsnon-contributorycomponent,isessentialforadvancingtowardsinclusivesocialdevelopment

Althoughitvariesfromcountrytocountry,thedevelopmentpatterninLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanhasanumberofcommoneconomic,socialandenvironmentalimbalances,whicharereflectedinthreedevelopmenttraps:lowcapacityforgrowth;highinequalityandlowsocialmobilityandcohesion;andlowinstitutionalcapacityandineffectivegovernancetoaddressdevelopmentchallenges(

Salazar-Xirinachs,2023

).Againstthebackdropofthesethreetrapsandtheviciouscirclesthatfeedthem,itisnoexaggerationtosaythatthecountriesoftheregionareinadevelopmentcrisis.

Dataregardingthefirsttrapspeakvolumes:between2015and2024,theannualgrowthrateinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanaveragedjust0.9%,lessthanhalfthe2.0%recordedinthe“l(fā)ostdecade”ofthe1980s(ECLAC

,2024a

).ThisworryingsituationhasledtheEconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC)tounderscoretheneedtomovetowardsagreatproductivetransformationbyscalingupandimprovingproductivedevelopmentpolicies.Thisisthekeytobreakingfromthetrapoflowcapacity

EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC)

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forgrowth(

ECLAC,2024b

;

Salazar-XirinachsandLlinás,2023

).Asregardsthesecondtrap,thehighinequalitycharacteristicoftheregioniscausedbyseveralfactors:aheterogeneousandslow-changingproductionmatrix,weakeducationandvocationaltrainingsystemswithhighdropoutratesandpoorlearningoutcomes,regressivetaxsystems,andsocialprotectionsystemsmarkedbyweaknessesandgaps(

ECLAC,2024c

).Thetrapoflowinstitutionalcapacityandineffectivegovernancetranslatesintopublicpoliciesandinstitutionsthatlackthecapacitiestomanagethenecessarytransformations.Breakingfromthistrapwillrequirestrengtheningthetechnical,operative,politicalandprospective(TOPP)capabilitiesofinstitutionsineachareaoftransformation,includingforumsforsocialdialogueandthemobilizationofrequisitefinancialresources.Alsoneededarestrategiestobuildpro-reformcoalitions,asopposedtothosethatresistchange;forthis,ananalysisofthepoliticaleconomyofreformisessential(

ECLAC,2024c

).

Thisdevelopmentcrisisisinterwovenwithahostofcriticalobstaclestoinclusivesocialdevelopmentintheregion.Theseincludedeeplyrootedpovertyandvulnerabilitytoit,structural,unjustandinefficientinequalities;gapsinhumancapacity-development(ineducation,health,nutrition)andinaccesstobasicservices;deficitsindecentworkanduncertaintieslinkedtotechnologicalchangesintheworldofwork;stillpartialandunequalaccesstosocialprotection;asocialinstitutionalframeworkunderconstruction;andinsufficientsocialinvestment.Theseissueshavebeencompoundedbyemergingobstaclesrelatedtothedifferentformsofviolence,thedemographictransitionandmigratorytrends;changesintheworldofwork,thetechnologicaltransformation,epidemiologicalandnutritionalchanges,andclimatechangeanddisasters(

ECLAC,2019

).Thisinvolvesastructureofsocialrisksthatisbeingreconfiguredandissuperimposedonasetofstructuralrisksthatoccuroverthelifecycleandrenderpeoplemorevulnerabletofallingintoandremaininginpoverty,andtotheviolationoftheirsocial,economic,culturalandenvironmentalrights(

Robles,2024

).

SocialPanoramaofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean?2024

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Addressingthevariouschallengesposedbythisscenariocallsforurgenteffortstostrengthensocialprotectionsystemsintheregion,astheyplayadirectroleineradicatingpovertyandreducinginequalitiesbyaimingtoensureuniversalaccesstoadequateincomelevels,basicsocialservicesandhousing,andtolabourandsocialinclusionpoliciesanddecentwork(ECLAC,

2020a

,

2022a

,

2022b

and

2023a

).Movingtowardsuniversal,comprehensive,sustainableandresilientsocialprotectionsystemsisvital.Thiswillrequireadoptingauniversalistapproachthatissensitivetodifferences,makingthesesocialprotectionsystemsaccessibletoallandmakingitpossibletoaddressexistinginequalities.Itwillalsorequirestrengthenedandcomprehensivesystemstoaddressrisksinanintersectoralmannerandwithcoordinationamongadministrativelevelsandthroughoutthelifecycle.Atthesametime,theymustbesustainable,meaningthattheymustfulfilthecommitmentsmadetothisgenerationandfuturegenerations,withabalancedapproachtothreedimensions:coverage,adequacyofentitlementsandfinancialsustainability.Lastly,thereisaneedforsocialprotectionsystemsthatareresilienttochangeandcrisesandareresponsive,flexibleandadaptable(

ArenasdeMesa,2023

;ECLAC,

2021

and

2022a

;

CecchiniandMartínez,2012

).

Socialprotectionsystemsofthisnature,whichplacepeopleatthecentre,areofstrategicimportanceforprogresstowardsinclusivesocialdevelopmentandarethefundamentalbasisforprogresstowardstruewelfareStates(

ArenasdeMesa,2023

).Thefocusontheeradicationofextremepovertyandpoverty,andthereductionofinequalities,isconsistentwithinclusivesocialdevelopment,whichcanbedefinedasaconditioninwhichallpeoplelivefreefrompovertyandhavealevelofwell-beingthatalignswitheconomicgrowth.Thisenablesthedevelopmentofskillsinacontextoffreedomanddignity,withfullenjoymentofeconomic,social,culturalandenvironmentalrightsandopportunitiesforrecognitionandparticipation.Toachievethis,thegapsinaccesstobasicareasofwell-beingmustbeaddressed,alongwithsocialinequalitiesandthestructuresthatperpetuatethem,

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fromauniversalistperspectivethatissensitivetodifferences(

ECLAC,2024d

).Likewise,thefocusontheenjoymentofrightshelpstoensurepeople’saccesstoqualitypublicservices,reducetheirvulnerabilitytosocialrisksandensuresustainableincomelevels,makingsocialprotectionarequirementofwelfarestates(

Briggs,1961

;

Barr,2020

;

ECLAC,

2023a

;

ILO,2018

;

Segura-Ubiergo,2007

).Thesesystemsalsoenhancesocialcohesionandinclusion,redistributingriskexposureandacommonsocialprotectionfloor(

Robles,2024

).

Socialprotectionsystemsconsistofcontributoryandnon-contributoryentitlements

(CecchiniandMartínez,2012

).Contributorypolicieslinkthecontributionsmadebyindividualsthroughouttheirworkingliveswithaccesstoentitlements(bothforrecipientsandanybeneficiaries).Theymaybefundedbycontributionsfromemployeesandemployers,aswellasbypublicorothersources.Conversely,non-contributorypoliciesdecoupleaccesstoentitlementsfromcontributionsandarefundedmainlyfrompublicresources(taxesorothergovernmentrevenues),orfromexternalgrantsorloans.Theymaybeuniversalortargetspecificpopulationcategories,withprioritygiventocertainincomelevels(

ILO,2024a

).Intheregion,theyincludecashtransfers(bothconditionalandnon-conditional)andin-kindtransfers,financialsupportthroughsubsidiesandtaxdeductions,transfersofgoodsandtheprovisionofservices,aswellasnon-contributorypensionsystems(

Cecchiniand

Martínez,2012

;

ECLAC,2024d

;

Roblesandothers,2024

).

Non-contributorysocialprotectionbecomesparticularlyrelevantinviewofthepersistentlevelsofextremepovertyandpovertyintheregion,togetherwiththehistoricalandstructuralnatureofinequalityandthehighlevelsoflabourinformalityandlow-qualityjobsthattranslateintolimitedorscarceaccesstocontributorysocialprotectionpolicies(

ECLAC,2023a

).Non-contributorysocialprotectionpoliciesarekeytoensuringthataccesstowell-beingdoesnotdependonthesocioeconomiclevelofhouseholdsandparticipationinthelabourmarket(Esping-Andersen,1990and

1999

),astheyloweraccessbarriersforessentialpublic

SocialPanoramaofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean?2024

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goodssuchasqualityeducationandhealth,andreducepeople’sexposuretovariousrisksthroughincomeprotectionmechanisms.Toachievethis,socialprotectionusesanumberofmechanismsandtools,suchasinter-agencyworkandlinkagesbetweenthecomponentsof

socialprotectionsystems;policiestoensureabasiclevelofincomeforall;integratedsocial

informationsystems;crisis,disasterandemergingriskresponsemechanisms;systemsandinstrumentsforintersectorallinkagesandcoordinationsuchasthejoined-uppoliciesdevelopedforcomprehensivecareinearlychildhoodandforothergroupsinneed,suchasolderpersonsandpersonswithdisabilities;andcomprehensivecarepolicies(ECLAC,

2020a

and

2023b

).

ThiseditionoftheSocialPanoramaofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanpresentsanin-depthanalysisofnon-contributorysocialprotectionpoliciesandprogrammesandthecorrespondinginstitutionalframework,withparticularemphasisontheirvitalroleineradicatingpovertyandreducinginequality.Theimpactofnon-contributorysocialprotectiononpovertyandinequality,whichhinderinclusivesocialdevelopment,substantiatestheneedtoincreasesocialinvestmentinthisarea,thusensuringitsfinancialsustainability,aswellastheurgencyofstrengtheninginstitutionalcapacitiesfortheefficientimplementationofthesepublicpolicies.

B.TowardstheSecondWorldSummitforSocial

Development:socialprotectionattheheartofinclusivesocialdevelopmentstrategies

TheWorldSummitforSocialDevelopmentheldinCopenhagenin1995wasthefirstinternationalefforttodefinesocialprotection,linkingitprimarilytopovertyeradication.Onthatoccasion,itwasarguedthatsocialprotectionshouldprotectfrompovertythosewhoseemploymentsituation,healthorcareneedsandthosewholosttheirlivelihoodsduetonaturaldisastersorcivilviolence,warsorforceddisplacementputthematriskoffalling

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intopoverty(

UnitedNations,1995

).TheindissolublelinkbetweenthepromotionofsocialdevelopmentandtheprotectionofhumanrightswashighlightedattheSummit,andsocialprotectionwasacentralelement.

Almost30yearslater,debateonthedefinitionandscopeoftheconceptofsocialprotectionisongoing(ArenasdeMesa,

2019

and

2023

;

ILO,2018

,

2021

and

2024a

;ECLAC,

2006

,

2018

and

2020a

;

Levy,2018

;

CecchiniandMartinez,2012

).In2000,theCommissionforSocialDevelopmentestablishedthatsocialprotectionisa“asetofpublicandprivatepoliciesandprogrammesundertakenbysocietiesinresponsetovariouscontingenciesinordertooffsettheabsenceorsubstantialreductionofincomefromwork;provideassistanceforfamilieswithchildren;andprovidepeoplewithhealthcareandhousing”,notingthatthedefinitionwasnon-exhaustiveastartingpoint(

UnitedNations,2000

,p.3).Itisnoteworthythatthisdefinition,togetherwiththereferencetotheneedforsocialconsensusonthelevelsofeitherriskordeprivationthataredeemedunacceptable,alludestotheideathatsocialprotectionisnotexclusivelyaimedatpeoplelivinginpoverty,butalsoatthosefacingothertypesoflife-cyclerisks,whetherduringtheirworkingyearsorinretirementoroldage.

TheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)hasalsoprovideddescriptionsofsocialprotection,regardingitasahumanrightthatis“definedasthesetofpoliciesandprogrammesdesignedtoreduceandpreventpoverty,vulnerabilityandsocialexclusionthroughoutthelifecycle”

(ILO,2021

,p.226).Italsoestablishesninebranchesofsocialprotection,1whichmaybeaddressedbyamixofcontributoryandnon-contributoryschemesandarecloselylinkedwiththeILOSocialProtectionFloorsRecommendation,2012(No.202).

1Thesebranchesare:childandfamilybenefits,maternityprotection,unemploymentsupport,employmentinjurybenefits,sicknessbenefits,healthprotection(medicalcare),old-agebenefits,invalidity/disabilitybenefits,andsurvivors’benefits(

ILO,2021

).

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ECLAChasalsoparticipatedactivelyinthedebateonsocialprotection.In2019,theRegionalAgendaforInclusiveSocialDevelopmentwasadoptedatthethirdsessionoftheRegionalConferenceonSocialDevelopmentinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean;theinstrumentstatesthatsocialprotectionaimsto“guaranteeuniversalaccesstoincomethatpermitsanadequatelevelofwell-being,aswellasuniversalaccesstosocialservices(suchashealth,education,waterandsanitation),housing,labourinclusionpoliciesanddecentwork”(

ECLAC,

2020a

,p.19).Thisfirstaxisofthistechnicalandpoliticalinstrumentfocusesonthedesign,consolidationanddeepeningofuniversalandcomprehensivesocialprotectionsystems,andreflectsabroadunderstandingoftheconceptofsocialprotectionthatincorporatesnotonlyincomeprotectionandmedicalcarewhenfacingvariousrisks,butalsotheimportanceofthedevelopmentofhumancapacities,labourinclusionandcare(

Robles,2024

).

Thepivotalroleofsocialprotectioninadvancinginclusivesocialdevelopmentoverthepast30yearsandtheextensivedebateonthedefinitionthereofsetthestageforthediscussionsthatwilltakeplaceattheSecondWorldSummitforSocialDevelopmentin2025.Thiswillbeacriticalopportunitytoensurethatsocialprotectionisregardedasakeycomponentofdevelopmentstrategiesand,onthatbasis,toidentifyandagreeonstrategicguidelinesandpoliciestomovetowardsuniversal,comprehensive,sustainableandresilientsocialprotectionsystems.

C.Thehigh-inequalitytrapandhighlevelsofpoverty:challengesfornon-contributorysocialprotection

ThehighinequalityandlowsocialmobilityandcohesioncharacteristicofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanconstituteatrapthathindersdevelopmentandstemsfromvariousfactors,includingweaksocialpoliciesandsocialprotectionsystemsthatfailtomitigatetheeffectsofinequalityrootedintheproductionsystemandintheregion’shistoryandculture

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(ECLAC,2024c

).Progresstowardsuniversal,comprehensive,sustainableandresilientsocialprotectionsystemsisthereforeessentialinordertofacemultidimensional,concurrentandacutechallengesoldandnew.

Giventhevariousinteractionsbetweenthecriticalobstaclesmentionedaboveandthe

simultaneitywithwhichtheyoccur,itispossibletoidentifyariskstructurethatisbeingreconfiguredandcouldshapethedevelopmentandfutureofsocialprotectionsystems(

Robles,2024

).Therefore,regionalchallengesfacedbygovernmentsmustbeurgentlyidentifiedwithaviewtodesigningtransformativesocialprotectionpoliciesthatensurethewell-beingofall.Thisrequires,amongotherthings,adequatelevelsofcoverage,sufficiencyandfinancialsustainability(

ArenasdeMesa,2023

).

Althoughthecountriesoftheregionhavemadesignificantprogressinexpandingandstrengtheningtheirsocialprotectionsystems,especiallynon-contributorysocialprotectionpolicies,significantgapsandinequalitiesremainthatrequireurgentattention.AccordingtotheInternationalLabourOrganization(

ILO,2024a

),around2023,theproportionofthepopulationcoveredbyatleastonesocialprotectionentitlementinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(effectivecoverage)was61.2%.2AsshowninchapterII,addressingthiscoveragegaprequiresstrengtheningsocialregistriesandestablishinginformationsystemsthatenablecountriestoidentifyvulnerablepopulationsandbolsterthemechanismsofsocialprotectionsystemstoensureaccessforthosewhoneedit.Furthermore,thereismarkedsegmentationinaccesstosocialprotectiondependingonhouseholdcharacteristics.Forexample,in2022,while1in2householdsinthelowestincomequintileaccessedsocial

2Thisindicatortomonitortarget1.3oftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)indicatestheproportionofthetotalpopulationthatreceivesacontributoryornon-contributorycashbenefit,excludinghealthandsicknessbenefits,underatleastoneofthecontingenciesorfunctionsofsocialprotection(referstoacontributoryortax-financedbenefit)orthatiscontributingtoatleastonesocialsecurityscheme(

ILO,2024a

).

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protectionthroughnon-contributoryprogrammes(50.2%),thisproportiondroppedto1in10higher-incomehouseholds(10.4%).Amongthelatter,thepercentageofhouseholdslackingaccesstosocialprotectionwaslessthanonefifth(17.3%)thatsameyear,whileinthelowestincomequintileitexceededonethirdofhouseholds(36.5%).

Therehasbeenanotableexpansionofnon-contributorysocialprotectionpoliciesintheregion.Twoofthemostimportantentitlements,intermsofcoverageandinvestmentinrecentdecades,areconditionalcashtransferprogrammes,asshowninfigure1,andnon-contributorypensionsystems,asshowninfigure2.

Figure1

LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(20countries):apopulationinrecipienthouseholdsofconditionalcashtransferprogrammesandother

continuoustransfers,b2000–2022(Percentagesoftotalpopulation)

Source:EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC),

Non-contributory

SocialProtectionProgrammesDatabase-LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean

;LatinAmericanandCaribbeanDemographicCentre(CELADE)-PopulationDivisionofECLAC,“Populationestimatesandprojections.Revision2022”;UnitedNations,

WorldPopulationProspects2022

,NewYork,2022.

EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC)

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aWeightedaveragebasedoninformationonconditionaltransferprogrammesandotherpermanentcashtransfers,excludingin-kindtransfersandsubsidies,fromthefollowingcountries:Argentina,Belize,Brazil,Chile,Colombia,CostaRica,theDominicanRepublic,Ecuador,ElSalvador,Guatemala,Haiti,Honduras,Jamaica,Mexico,Panama,Paraguay,Peru,thePlurinationalStateofBolivia,TrinidadandTobagoandUruguay.ForBrazil,datafor2020refertocoverageandexpenditureoftheBolsaFamíliaprogramme,andfor2021and2022,datarefertotheAuxílioBrasilprogramme.

bThisindicatorisbuiltbymultiplyingthenumberofhouseholdscovered,asinformedbyofficialcountrysources,bytheaveragehouseholdsizeofthepoorestincomequintileatthenationallevel,accordingtoCEPALSTATdata.ThemethodofFigueroaandVila(2024)wasusedfortheestimationofthecompleteseries.Theimputationofmissingdatabyprogrammeisdoneusingtheavailabledata,assumingequivalencewiththelastavailabledataoralinearrelationshipbetweenthetwoclosestavailabledata.ThetotalpopulationofLatinAmericanandCaribbeancountriesisusedasabasefortheaverage,regardlessofwhethertheyhaveprogrammesthatareactiveintheyearofestimation.

Figure2

LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(23countries):acoverageofpensionersaged65andoverinnon-contributorypensionsystems,b2000–2022

(Percentagesofpopulationaged65yearsandover)

Source:J.I.Vila,C.RoblesandA.ArenasdeMesa,“Overviewofnon-contributorypensionsystemsinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean:analysisoftheirevolutionandtheirroleinold-ageeconomicsecurity”,

Non-contributorypensionsystemsinLatinAmerica

andtheCaribbean:towardssolidaritywithsustainability

,ECLACBooks,No.164(LC/PUB.2024/6-P/-*),A.ArenasdeMesaandC.Robles(eds.),Santiago,EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC),2024.

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aWeightedaverageforthefollowingcountries:AntiguaandBarbuda,Argentina,Bahamas,Barbados,Belize,Brazil,Chile,Colombia,CostaRica,Cuba,theDominicanRepublic,Ecuador,ElSalvador,Guatemala,Guyana,Mexico,Panama,Paraguay,Peru,thePlurinationalStateofBolivia,SaintKittsandNevis,TrinidadandTobagoandUruguay.

bForyearsinwhichthereisnocoveragedata,butthenon-contributorypensionsystemisoperating,thevaluesareimputedaccording