外文翻譯在建筑學的設計構(gòu)成和結(jié)構(gòu)的材料

1、外文翻譯-在建筑學的設計構(gòu)成和結(jié)構(gòu)的材料 design of reinforced concrete structures second editionusa williams?alan2 structure in design of architecture and structural material,china water power press,beijing,2002 p3757鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)設計第二版美艾倫?威廉斯著第二章,在建筑學的設計構(gòu)成和結(jié)構(gòu)的材料 ,中國水利水電出版社,北京,2002.p37頁57頁. structure in design of architecture

2、 and structural material we have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and sp

3、ace forming subsystems. is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic, preliminary, and final. such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at concep

4、tual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic considerations .in fact , we can say that an architects ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer the object of the schematic fe

5、ed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .to do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical

6、form. this means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. as an actual building configuration

7、 option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions. at the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic of h

8、is or her scheme .but this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme. at the preliminary level, the architects emphasis will

9、shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .here the architects structural needs will shift to approximate design of specific subsystem options. at this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification a

10、nd design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. consultants can play a significant part in this

11、 effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts. when the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall

12、design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .the focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .at this stage the emphasis will be on the detailed development of all subsystem specificshere the role of specialists from various fields, including struct

13、ural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. decisions made at this level may produce feedback into level ii that will result in changes. however, if levels i and ii are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at

14、the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement or modification of the more general properties of a total-syste

15、m design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details. to summarize: at level i, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. at this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the

16、form of overall thinking. at level ii, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .that is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in suffici

17、ent depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interactionthis will mean a somewhat more specific form of collaboration with specialists then that in level i .at level iii ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that provid

18、ing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents of course this success comes from the development of the structural material.the principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. the

19、 courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. the greeks and romans sometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. the columns of the parthenon in athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that h

20、ave now rusted away. the romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water. both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. steel, basically an alloy of

21、iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. after the invention of the bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. the enormous advantage of steel is its tensile f

22、orce which, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. new alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress. modern cement, called portland cement, was invented in 1824. it is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then grou

23、nd into a power. it is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate small stones, crushed rock, or gravel, and water to make concrete. different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or

24、 even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. and whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. thus, the two substances complement each other. they also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. they there

25、fore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tensions will develop. concrete and steel also form such a strong bond the force that unites them that the steel

26、cannot slip within the concrete. still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid. the adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction p

27、ractices. it was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors. both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. it also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and longer span

28、s. since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. they have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. in the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; t

29、hey had the solid look of bearing walls. today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations. another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. for many years the standard method was riv

30、eting. a rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. it is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of

31、pieces of steel by melting a steel material between them under high heat. priestesss concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strengths. they are then used to priestess concrete, usually by one of two different me

32、thods. the first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods. when the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. in the other and more common method, the prie

33、stesses steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure, and the concrete is poured around them. priestesss concrete uses less steel and less concrete. because it is a highly desirable material. progressed concrete has made it possible to dev

34、elop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern, sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. the uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed在建筑學的設計構(gòu)成和結(jié)構(gòu)的材料 我們有,并且建筑師一定在一個如此的方法中處理活動,身體檢查和代號需要的空間方面全部的表現(xiàn)正直被保證。 因此,他或她很好地想要想到進化如互相影響

35、的完全的系統(tǒng)和空間形成次要系統(tǒng)的建筑物環(huán)境。 是表現(xiàn)復雜的挑戰(zhàn), 和遇見它建筑師將會需要提供至少三層反饋思考的一個 hierarchic 設計程序: 概要的,初步的,和最后的。 如果在設計思考的概念上階段,他或者她將避免被混亂 ,藉著能轉(zhuǎn)移來自較多的基本考慮的注意的無數(shù)細節(jié)議題,如此的一個序位是必需的。事實上,我們能說建筑師的能力區(qū)別較多的基本形成比較詳細的議題對如一個設計者的他成功是很重要的。 概要回饋水平的物體將產(chǎn)生并且評估全部的位置-計劃, 活動-交互作用 , 和建筑物-結(jié)構(gòu)的選項。做因此建筑師一定能夠把重心集中在如實際形式的決定因素的位置上下文的基本屬性的交互作用,空間的組織和象征。這

36、意謂 ,以概要的角度 ,建筑師可能首先構(gòu)思而且做模型建筑物設計當必要表現(xiàn)的組織抽象化-在 teractions 中隔開。然后他或她可能探究抽象化的全部空間-形式含意。 如真實的建筑物結(jié)構(gòu)選項開始浮現(xiàn),它將會被修正為基本位置包括考慮情況。 如果設計者可以為達成全部的結(jié)構(gòu)正直使他或者她的選項看得見而且考慮建設性的可行性,在概要的階段,它也會是有幫助的和經(jīng)濟的他或她的方案。但是這將會需要建筑師及或 一個顧問能夠使有概念總數(shù)-系統(tǒng)根據(jù)元素的細節(jié)結(jié)構(gòu)的選項。如此全部的思考向后地可能是容易地喂改善空間-形式的方案。 在初步的水平, 建筑師的強調(diào)將會轉(zhuǎn)移到關(guān)于的細述他的或她的更有希望概要的設計選項。在這里建

37、筑師的結(jié)構(gòu)需要將會轉(zhuǎn)移到接近特定次要系統(tǒng)選項的設計。 在現(xiàn)階段完全的結(jié)構(gòu)方案被把重心集中在確認和主要次要系統(tǒng)的設計被發(fā)展到中央水平特異性對那范圍他們的主要幾何學的, 成份, 和交談式財產(chǎn)被建立?；敬我到y(tǒng)交互作用和設計沖突能如此在總數(shù)-系統(tǒng)目的的上下文被識別而且決定。 顧問能在這一個努力扮演一重要的角色; 這些初步行動-水平?jīng)Q定也可能造成要求精致或概要的觀念方面的甚至主要的改變的反饋。 當設計者和客戶在初步的水平對設計提議的可行性感到滿意的時候,它意謂全部設計的基本問題被解決,而且細節(jié)不可能生產(chǎn)主要的變化。焦點再一次改變 ,和進入最后的水平之內(nèi)的設計程序移動。在現(xiàn)階段,強調(diào)將會在所有次要系統(tǒng)

38、特性的詳細發(fā)育上。 來自各種不同的場, 包括結(jié)構(gòu)工程, 的專家的角色在這里非常大的, 因為初步設計的所有細節(jié)一定被想出。 決定在這一個水平作出了可能生產(chǎn)反饋進入同高的 2 哪一將會造成變化。 然而, 如果水平我和 2 與洞察力一起處理, 那關(guān)系在全部的決定, 在概要的和初步的水平作出了之間, 和最后水平的特性應該是以致于總數(shù)重新設計不在疑問,寧可,整個的程序應該搬進來自創(chuàng)造和總數(shù)-系統(tǒng)設計觀念的比較一般財產(chǎn)的精致 或修正 的一種進化的流行是一,對那肉由于必要元素和細節(jié)。 概述: 在第一水平,建筑師以概念上的角度一定首先建立基本概要的選項的全部空間-形式可行性。 在現(xiàn)階段,和專家的合作可能是有幫

39、助的, 但是只有當如果以全部思考的形式。 在同高的 2, 建筑師一定能夠識別被方案暗示的主要的次要系統(tǒng)需求和可觀藉由接近主要成份特性的他們的交談式可行性。那是, 主要次要系統(tǒng)需要的財產(chǎn)只被在充份的深度方面對非常他們的基本形式的固有相容性想出 -相關(guān)的和動作的交互作用。 這將會在第一水平中然后用專家意指略微比較特定形式的合作那。在同高的 3,和專家的建筑師和特定形式的合作然后那為必需生產(chǎn)順從的工程文件的所有的元素設計特性提供。當然,這成功來自結(jié)構(gòu)材料的發(fā)育。 比較早的時代的主要工程材料是木材和石工磚塊,石頭或磚瓦 , 和相似的材料。 課程或?qū)蛹s束連同灰泥或柏油,像物質(zhì)的焦油或一些其他的裝訂代理人一起。 希臘人和羅馬人有時用了鐵棍棒形骨針或者拍手加強他們的建筑物。 縱隊的帕德教神殿在雅典對于現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)生銹離開的鐵酒吧在他們里面,舉例來說,訓練洞。也被用一個天然的齒骨質(zhì)的羅馬人呼叫困惑,從火山的灰制造了,那在水之下像石頭一樣的難變成了。 鋼和齒骨質(zhì) , 二現(xiàn)代的大多數(shù)重要工程材料,在十九世紀內(nèi)被介紹。 鋼,基本上一個鐵的合金和很少的碳已經(jīng)被對如